Unit 1 Multiple Choice & Short Answer Flashcards

Question

neocortex

Answer 1

90% of cerebral cortex in humans is the neocortex; has 6 layers, and many cell layers = lots of synaptic connections = lots of processing power

Answer 2

gyri - "bumps" on surface of brain sulci - "valleys" on surface of brain Important because they increase the surface area of the brain, and scientists use them to divide the brain into lobes (i.e., they're like landmarks)

Answer 3

separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe (runs along posterior frontal lobe)

Answer 4

separates the frontal/parietal lobes from the temporal lobe (runs on top of the temporal lobe)

Answer 5

runs along the occipital lobe and separates it from the parietal/temporal lobes

Answer 6

situated in front

Answer 7

situated behind

Answer 8

toward the back

Answer 9

toward the belly

Answer 10

toward the snout

Answer 11

toward the tail

Answer 12

runs directly down center of brain, dividing the two hemispheres

Answer 13

1. Saggital/lateral - separate left and right; think hot dog bun 2. Horizontal - separate top and bottom; think bagel 3. Coronal - separate rostral and caudal; think sliced bread

Answer 14

focuses on understanding how objects/ideas are represented in the brain and how these representations are manipulated

Answer 15

Step 1: Encode Step 2: Compare Step 3: Decide Step 4: Respond Experiment: participants press buttons indicating how quickly people process that two letters are the same letter, identical (caps/no caps), both vowels, both consonants, etc. Response times are different for each stimuli, and as the number of items in a set increases, reaction time (cog. processing) is slower. Matching color to word (e.g., word is "Green" in red font) is another example of how info is processed in the brain.

Answer 16

1. Brain perturbation approach - perturb brain (administer drug, treatment, etc.) and measure cognitive performance 2. Neuromonitoring approach - manipulate task itself and measure cognitive performance

Answer 17

We select a molecule used in the brain (e.g., glucose or a neurotransmitter) and introduce radioactive tracer into the bloodstream which will attach to the molecule of interest. We can then measure where the radiation comes from in the brain. This is invasive.

Answer 18

We surround the skull with powerful magnets, causing hydrogen atoms to align. We then send a magnetic pulse, knocking the atoms out of alignment. We can measure the energy signals emitted by the atoms as they return to original alignment, producing detailed 3D images showing density of different tissues in voxels. There are different relaxation times for different substances or tissues.

Answer 19

Same process as MRI, but instead measures BOLD (blood oxygen level dependent) signal. Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood have different magnetic properties and therefore distort the MRI relaxation signal differently. In particular, fMRI measures oxygenated blood as an index of neural activity, but does not directly measure neural events; rather, measures metabolic changes CORRELATED with neural activity (hemodynamic response). For analysis, we use the "subtraction method" in which we can construct a map of changes in regional blood flow that are coupled with local neuronal activity.

Answer 20

Facet of fMRI analysis in which BOLD signal is compared in response to two distinct stimuli, and we can "subtract" areas that are active in both, allowing for a direct insight into what regions are active in response to particular stimuli (e.g., response in early visual areas for movement vs. blinking)

Answer 21

Individuals were shown an image that simulated movement (zooming in and out) and another image that was blinking/flashing but with no movement. Using the subtraction method, primary visual cortex had BOLD signal for both movement and blinking, while Area MT has BOLD response for movement but not for the blinking checkerboard, so we know its specific role involves visual interpretation of movement.

Answer 22

MRI is a form of stationary imaging (not ideal for use during activity), so fMRI is used to remedy this problem

Answer 23

1. Widely available 2. Great spatial resolution 3. Non-invasive 4. Better temporal/spatial resolution than PET (temporal res. still terrible relative to other methods!!!!)

Answer 24

1. Poor temporal resolution 2. Based on assumption that blood flow = neural activity 3. Very expensive 4. Subjects/experiment must be MRI compatible 5. Very sensitive to motion

Answer 25

Uses an EEG-like cap to hold "optodes" that emit and detect near-infrared light, which is shined into head and bounces off tissues. This creates a "banana" of light. fNIRS is sensitive to differences in oxygenated and deoxygenated blood (BOLD) signal.

Answer 26

Advantages: 1. Small and portable 2. Non-invasive 3. Less sensitive to motion than MRI/fMRI Disadvantages: 1. Only a small number of sensor locations 2. Cannot image deep tissues

Answer 27

Uses MRI scanner, but measures the motion of water in neurons. It is easier for water to diffuse down an axon than across due to the presence of myelin, so we can measure the ease of movement of water molecules to map the white matter fiber tracts (axon tracts) in the brain. This involves fractional anisotropy, which is greatest down axons as aforementioned. Same advantages and disadvantages as MRI.

Answer 28

preferential diffusion of water in one direction compared to two other directions; foundational measurement of DTI, which takes advantage of the fact that FA is greatest down axons rather than through axons

Answer 29

A study measured FA in various white matter pathways as well as math skills using math tests, and it was found that greater FA in the SCR (white matter tract) was correlated with better math performance

Answer 30

Uses an electrode cap to measure neural electrical activity and is particularly great for sleep and epilepsy studies. We can look at individual "chunks" of the brain to localize activity. Different sleep-wake activity (e.g., excited, relaxed, drowsy, etc.) is represented by different EEG frequency bands (e.g., gamma, beta, etc.), and we can use event-related potentials (ERPs) to measure changes in neural electrical activity related to a specific event/stimulus

Answer 31

ERPs are essentially just averaged EEGs that "clean up the mess" and reduce noise in individual EEG trials. ERPs "wash out" variations in the brain's electrical activity that are unrelated to the event (stimulus) of interest.

Answer 32

ERP components (peaks) are labeled as positive (P) or negative (N) in order... 1. P1-N1 - represents early sensory neural activity (e.g., selective attention, expert recognition) 2. P2-N2 - represents mid-level sensory activity (e.g., object categorization) 3. P3 - represents cognitive/conscious thinking (e.g., working memory) Collectively these components allow us to determine the level of processing in the brain based on latency; larger delay means more complex processing (like P3)

Answer 33

Exogenous components are linked to physical aspects of stimulus itself and do not relate to attention/cognition; these components are between 0-100 ms latency and are usually prior to N1 or P1 peaks Endogenous components are driven by internal cognitive states (i.e., must be awake) and are generally >= 100 ms after stimulus; these components include N1/P1 through P3

Answer 34

We can compare the ERP traces from two very similar conditions, with the sole difference being the thing you want study. Example: Subjects were exposed to speech conditions with background noise and without background noise, and ERPs revealed a delayed cognitive response with background noise present (greater latency in peaks)

Answer 35

Pros: 1. Excellent temporal resolution 2. Cheap and portable 3. Direct measure of real brain activity Cons: 1. Poor spatial resolution 2. Hair gel (usually) required (kinda invasive?) 3. Only can record from most superficial layers of cortex 4. Difficult to do with kids (often requires a lot of time)

Answer 36

Electrical current flow in neurons creates local magnetic fields, and changes in the magnetic fields at the surface of the scalp can be measured using superconducting coils (SQUIDs). Very useful for surgery due to extremely high spatial and temporal resolution.

Answer 37

Pros: 1. High temporal and spatial resolution (extremely reliable spatial recognition makes MEG good for surgery) Cons: 1. Very expensive machines 2. Not widely used

Answer 38

Generates a rapidly changing magnetic field that induces physiological electric current that causes neurons to fire ("scrambles" neural activity). I.e., TMS literally manipulates brain's ability to do its job by inducing "virtual lesions" that activate or suppress cortical activity. Can be either single pulse or rTMS (repetitive TMS), and lasts only a short time. Often used to stimulate involuntary movement.

Answer 39

Advantages: 1. Temporary 2. Reasonably focal 3. Can be randomly assigned Disadvantages: 1. Some areas cannot be stimulated 2. Uncertainty on size of stimulation area 3. May be affecting an excitatory or inhibitory area

Answer 40

Subject presented a letter and is asked to identify it. TMS pulse prior to stimulus presentation does not affect the subject's ability to identify the letter, but TMS pulse after stimulation causes subject to be unable to identify the letter.

Answer 41

Single dissociation: Temporal lobe damage impairs familiarity memory but not recent memory, and we know these two types of memory are dissociable, but could impairment be due to difficulty and not due to a specific problem? ...Double dissociation addresses this: Temporal lobe damage impairs familiarity memory but not recent memory and frontal lobe damage impairs recent memory but not familiarity memory. Therefore, we know it's not just difficulty. A double dissociation refers to documenting two distinct patterns of impairment in two different groups or individuals, proving that two functions are neurologically distinct. Double dissociation provides much stronger evidence for selective impairment.

Answer 42

divide the cortex into numbered regions based on cytoarchitecture; as time progressed, it was found that these regions often represent particular functions, pointing to the idea of localization of function

Answer 43

The "what" pathway is a ventral feedforward pathway important for object recognition, and the "where" pathway is a dorsal feedforward pathway important for object localization

Answer 44

area of visual cortex that responds to colors

Answer 45

area of brain that responds to motion (think fMRI example study)

Answer 46

ALL visual stimuli

Answer 47

area of the temporal cortex to which fMRI and EEG show specific responses to faces; however, FFA can further specialize and be involved in visual expertise for other objects (e.g., cars, birds); damage to this region causes prosopagnosia, or an impairment in recognizing faces

Answer 48

an N170 peak in the lateral temporal lobe is specific for faces; there was a small peak in response to cars, and a large peak in response to faces, corresponding to the FFA (note that car peak would likely be large also if subject were a car expert)

Answer 49

fMRI showed a large BOLD signal in voxels corresponding to the FFA when subjects were presented with faces, but a small BOLD signal when subjects were presented with objects Also, fMRI showed a a large BOLD signal in voxels corresponding to the FFA when subjects were presented with INTACT faces, but a small BOLD signal when subjects were presented with SCRAMBLED faces; i.e., must be a full face, not just components of a face

Answer 50

M1 is involved in movement production, and S1 receives sensory signals from the skin and body about touch, pain, and temperature; each has a topographic map represented by a homonculus

Answer 51

the hippocampus is essential for forming new, long-term DECLARATIVE memories; damage to it leads to inability to form new long-term declarative memories, but old memories remain intact and NONDECLARATIVE memory intact

Answer 52

the frontal cortex is the seat of higher-order abilities like planning, attention, and working memory 1. Contains language region in left inferior frontal gyrus (L IFG) for most folks (esp. right handers) 2. The posterior region is the motor cortex 3. Prefrontal cortex (PFC) is the parts rostral to the motor regions that focus on cognition and include the ventral/medial PFC (emotional cognition) as well as the lateral/dorsal PFC (logic and planning)

Answer 53

the parts rostral to the motor regions that focus on cognition 1. Ventral/Medial PFC - emotional cognition 2. Lateral/Dorsal PFC - logic and planning

Answer 54

1. The brain is only plastic for certain kinds of information during specific "critical periods," with the first three years of a child being decisive for later development and success in life 2. "Enriched environments" enhance the brain's capacity for learning 3. Students learn best if taught in their preferred type of learning (visual, auditory, hands-on, etc.) 4. We only use 10% of our brains 5. Myths about bilingualism 6. The left brain/right brain myth

Answer 55

Myth: Enriched environments increase synaptogenesis Busted: Truth is less about enriched environments vs. standard environments and more about making sure environments are not impoverished

Answer 56

Myth: The brain is only plastic for certain kinds of information during specific "critical periods," with the first three years of a child being decisive for later development and success in life Busted: Although there are critical periods for visual system and sensitive periods exist in some facets of learning (e.g., language), nearly all things you learn do NOT have a critical period and you can learn them at any time

Answer 57

Myth: Students learn best if taught in their preferred type of learning (visual, auditory, hands-on, etc.) Busted: Students benefit from information presented in all modalities, but MOST STUDENTS learn best from visual information, even if its not their preference. Combining a variety of instructional approaches can help MOST STUDENTS synthesize concepts. Less a learning STYLE, more a learning PREFERENCE

Answer 58

self-proclaimed auditory vs. visual learners all showed better learning via textbook over audiobook

Answer 59

Myth: We only use 10% of our brain Busted: There aren't "dormant" parts of our brain that aren't in use. We use 100% of our brains, 100% of the time, but some areas work harder than others at various times depending on what we are doing.

Answer 60

Myth: There are "left brained" and "right brained" people Busted: There is no evidence that normal people rely predominantly on one hemisphere for learning, thinking, or other major tasks - all brains rely strongly on both. Hemispheric differences do exist, but "left brained" people are not a thing.

Answer 61

A survey of teachers found that they believed nearly half of neuromyths (56% endorsement). Belief in neuromyths was significantly predicted by general knowledge of the brain, as teachers with higher scores on knowledge were more likely to believe in myths. This is largely due to pop-sci exposure. Country of education also plays a role.

Answer 62

General public endorsed 68% of neuromyths, educators 56%, neuro exposure 46%

Answer 63

1. Learning styles 2. Dyslexia is seeing letters backwards

Answer 64

1. Younger 2. Have grad degree 3. More neuroscience courses 4. More peer-reviewed science experience

Answer 65

Teachers who took BrainU significantly improved in neuroscience knowledge and confidence in neuroscience knowledge, and they also implemented more higher-order thinking and connections to the world in their classroom practices

Answer 66

studies have shown predictive power with "school readiness" and performance in educational settings, sparking a massive push for preschooling in accordance with this; difference in readiness is ALWAYS a combination of nature and nurture

Answer 67

babies become sensitive to language in utero yet unknown if talking to babies in womb is effective

Answer 68

A 12 month "window of opportunity" exists where the brain establishes the ability to discern between sounds/establish phonemes in a given language. This window closes and is why we can't necessarily differentiate between Native American phonemes but Native children can.

Answer 69

An fMRI study in 2-3 month old infants showed greater activation of language regions near the Sylvian fissure when words were played forward vs. backward; this reveals the ability of even very young children to hear the differences in phonemes (language learning starts early!)

Answer 70

Because a sensitive period for distinguishing between phonemes exists, true bilingualism involves the increased ability to distinguish between the phonemes of a given language and is usually only present in children deriving from a multi-language household. In bilingualism the brain is able to establish two separate representations for phoneme differentiation, and in true bilingualism, there are overlapping areas of the brain for the languages and stronger interconnectivity between them.

Answer 71

In deaf households, babies recognize signs and babble with hands. ASL recruits the same brain regions as spoken language despite auditory/visual disparity, pointing to the idea that the brain's language regions are largely about language processing as a whole, not just hearing or moving your mouth to speak

Answer 72

the LEFT inferior frontal gyrus (left IFG); greater IFG asymmetry points toward greater opportunity to learn language

Answer 73

a study showed that greater IFG (language region) asymmetry was present in those with a higher socioeconomic status

Answer 74

language milestones occur at the same time, but bilingual children have more cognitive control in switching between tasks; this is more work, which can be hard for children, but executive functions largely robust as a result

Answer 75

Babies map objects based on words they hear... 1. At 18-20 months, babies know roughly 20-50 words and speed at which words are picked up increases 2. At age 5, children know roughly 2000+ words 3. Adults continue to pick up new words at a quick rate

Answer 76

Children learn grammar through statistical learning, or implicit learning that occurs as children interact in the world (i.e., it is not explicitly taught by parents); after age 13 it is more difficult to learn grammar (this includes in ASL). Right hemisphere is more involved in grammar.

Answer 77

1. Babies and non-human primates have some concept of numbers 2. 2-3 year olds know their counting words and can apply numbers to objects 3. 3-4 year olds develop a deep understanding of counting and cardinality principle (number of items in a set)

Answer 78

no concept of numbers or a difficulty understanding numbers

Answer 79

babies prefer to look at the new, changing image (flashing dots experiment), and baby looks at the side where the number of dots changes the most

Answer 80

states that the discriminability of any two magnitudes is based on the ratio between the values and not their absolute difference; that is, we have ratio dependent accuracy and are able to determine something such as which side has more dots based on ratio

Answer 81

ability to estimate, compare, and mentally manipulate large numerical quantities without counting or using symbols; this is how we follow Weber's law and have ratio dependent accuracy

Answer 82

1. Approximate number system (ANS) 2. Object tracking system (OTS)

Answer 83

mechanism by which objects are represented as distinct individuals that can be tracked through time and space

Answer 84

1. ANS is approximate and compressed using Weber's law, while OTS is exact 2. ANS represents both small and large quantities, while OTS is limited to small quantities (< 4) 3. ANS is insensitive to surface features (e.g., color), while OTS is sensitive to surface features 4. ANS depends on mid-parietal regions (intraparietal sulcus, IPS), while OTS depends on posterior parietal regions 5. ANS develops slowly with age, beyond age 10, while OTS develops to adult-like levels within the first year of life

Answer 85

Children were asked to name number of items and latency was tracked. For 3 or 4 items, latency was nearly identical (OTS active), but beyond 3 or 4 items, naming latencies increase linearly as OTS stops and serial counting takes over. Errors also become more common with quantity.

Answer 86

Adults who had a lower Weber fraction (i.e., better ability to use ANS for small ratios, or discern numbers between lower ratios of dots) generally scored higher on math tests than adults with a high Weber fraction.

Answer 87

As age increased among participants, Weber fraction decreased until flattening out around age 10, indicating that ANS improves steadily as we age. However, OTS ability increased within 1 year of age before flattening out, indicating that OTS is fully developed extremely quickly.

Answer 88

Experiment showed that with age, Weber fraction is lower (better ANS) in educated individuals from indigenous cultures than uneducated individuals from indigenous cultures. This may be largely cultural, where people simply don't have words for all the numbers.

Answer 89

the neural basis for ANS is in the IPS, and activation is similar/identical for both the left and right IPS

Answer 90

Idea that reading is a recent cultural invention that has become nearly universal in a short time, and evolution clearly could not have created specialized brain systems for reading (too short of time). Hypothesized that neuronal recycling - pre-existing systems used for other purposes are co-opted for culturally acquired systems - is at play here.

Answer 91

writing systems started with pictograms, and in most cultures writing systems became less and less complex for ease/quickness of writing

Answer 92

reading requires linking a written form to the spoken form, and reading has become so automatic that we do it even when it gets in the way (e.g., mismatched color/words experiment is challenging for us)

Answer 93

1. Executive function 2. Math and number 3. Reading EF is a domain general ability, while math and reading are domain specific abilities, and EF drives specialization of neural circuits for math and reading

Answer 94

domain general areas (e.g., executive function) are applicable to many areas of life, whereas domain specific areas (e.g., math and reading) are applicable only in specific contexts

Answer 95

There is a massive network of brain regions involved in language and reading. In the left hemisphere, information from various brain regions combines into an area for abstract representations, and articulation follows if speech is desired.

Answer 96

VWFA is part of the FFA that starts to specialize in response to script/printed text (as words read per minute begins to increase, VWFA activation for words increases and for faces decreases). Specifically, the LEFT VWFA plays a role in reading - there is NO right side activity - but left VWFA activates when words/reading occurs in either hemisphere and irrespective of capitalization.

Answer 97

idea that position, illumination, color, occlusion, etc. do not affect our ability to recognize an object (e.g., parts of dog not visible or dog changes color, but we still know it's a dog)

Answer 98

language symbols do not hold to usual rules of object invariance, meaning some unlearning of object invariance is required to discern between characters and learn to be literate (this is why literacy is hard!)

Answer 99

removal of VWFA led to slower reading and an increased error rate in reading, demonstrating the fact that VWFA is crucial for reading

Answer 100

Brain scans show that words result in greatest activation in occipitotemporal cortex relative to infrequent/frequent letters, false fonts, etc.

Answer 101

Being an expert in anything causes the LEFT FFA to specialize; somebody becoming an expert in cars or birds, as one study shows, causes the FFA to activate in response to expert material. This is also applicable to reading, as somebody gets better at reading (more WPM), left VWFA activation in the FFA significantly increases. In short, a part of the left FFA respecializes for words or expert material.

Answer 102

1. Auditory brain regions such as the planum temporale increase their response to spoken words (compared to other sounds) as a result of acquiring literacy 2. Planum temporale connectivity to VWFA (via arcuate fasciculus white matter tract) increases as result of acquiring literacy

Answer 103

The planum temporale, an auditory brain region, increases activation in response to spoken words compared to other sounds, and increases its connectivity to the VWFA (via arcuate fasciculus white matter tract) as a result of acquiring literacry

Answer 104

those who learned to read in childhood have greater VWFA activation and more words read per minute than those who learned to read in adulthood; as a general rule, more WPM (better reading ability) means greater VWFA and PT activation

Answer 105

Even into the 20s, left lateralization occurs. Specifically, there is greater left IFG activation (language region) and decreased right FFA activation with age. This is proven via words vs false fonts fMRI BOLD study.

Answer 106

A specific learning difficulty in reading, affecting 15-17% of school-age children, that is characterized by difficulties with accurate word recognition, decoding, and spelling. It may cause problems with reading comprehension and slow vocabulary growth. It is neurological and often genetic, and rates change depending on SES.

Answer 107

Dyslexics performing nonreading language tasks activate language areas less than age-matched children and less than reading-matched (younger children).

Answer 108

1. Phonology problems 2. Auditory processing problems 3. Rapidly changing visual processing 4. Cerebellar function (problems with integration of modalities) Ramus et al. tested a group of dyslexic adults on all these tests, and all 4 deficits were identified in MOST dyslexics, but phonology deficits were present in ALL dyslexics, making phonology deficits the best test for distinguishing dyslexic from neurotypical

Answer 109

1. Left VWFA starts to specialize in response to script and printed text 2. Left temporal-parietal cortex, near Wernicke's area, increases response to spoken language 3. Left planum temporale, auditory language region, increases response to spoken language and increases connectivity to VWFA via arcuate fasciculate There is an overall left lateralization with reading experience/improvement.

Answer 110

Significantly decreased left lateralization in dyslexics (VWFA, PT, IFG, etc.); shows that dyslexics use different regions of the brain when reading; right side of brain (instead of left) was highly active while reading in poor readers

Answer 111

1. Planum temporale is more symmetrical in dyslexics and has worse conenctivity (arcuate fasciculus); PT has differences in activity and structure 2. Left VWFA activity decreased, right VWFA activity increased 3. Arcuate fasciculus has decreased volume and altered structure 4. Left LFG (Broca's area) is underactive in dyslexics As a whole, significantly decreased left lateralization in dyslexics (VWFA, PT, IFG, etc.); shows that dyslexics use different regions of the brain when reading; right side of brain (instead of left) was highly active while reading in poor readers

Answer 112

Kindergarteners were shown words or symbols, and those with the largest N1 ERP peak had better reading performance two years later. Shows that N1 peak size in PT can serve as a predictor for quality of literacy. In fact, ERP predicted future reading ability better than phonological awareness or other behavioral measures.

Answer 113

DTI of arcuate fasciculus showed differences in structure prior to formal reading instruction. Those who scored lower on "blending words test" had smaller arcuate fasciculus (worse connectivity between VWFA and PT) and were more likely to be diagnosed with dyslexia.

Answer 114

1. ERP of PT - larger N1 peak, better reader 2 years later 2. DTI of arcuate fasciculus - smaller arcuate fasciculus (worse connectivity) more likely to be diagnosed with dyslexia Honorable Mention: neural activity of right IFG can predict with 92% accuracy which dyslexics would experience the greatest reading improvement

Answer 115

We know that poor readers almost always practice reading skills less than more fluent readers, creating a dilemma in whether brain abnormalities or simply less practice caused structural brain differences (such as reduced lateralization, smaller arcuate fasciculus). We know that brain structure changes with experience, so do brain abnormalities lead to less reading? or does less reading lead to brain abnormalities? We don't really know as of right now.

Answer 116

Brain imaging showed neural activity in right IFG that with 92% accuracy predicted which dyslexic students would experience the greatest reading improvement over the next 2.5 years. Makes sense because left IFG is underactive in dyslexic students, so increased right IFG may reflect compensation for the left side deficit, whihc typically plays a bigger role in language in neurotypical individuals.

Answer 117

phonological training intervention improved speech comprehension and grammar in dyslexic individuals; led to creation of/related to FastForWord

Answer 118

FastForWord is a phonological training intervention app that uses games to help students practice phoneme sounds and map them onto written words. In a study among dyslexics and neurotypical individuals, FastForWord significantly increased left lateralization/neural activity in PT and IFG. Prime example of remediation = specific deficit is improved, reacquire neural activity. Great success story!

Answer 119

The key is how we identify struggling learners: Currently, there is a "Wait to Fail" model in which there are cut-off scores below a certain threshold (i.e., must be a discrepany between predicted and measured reading/math levels), but this can lead to children "bobbing along" just above and below cut-off. A solution to this is the "Response to Intervention" (RTI) or "Multi-Tiered System of Support" (MTSS) model in which there are different tiers of intervention that keeps students in a system for help, just at different levels depending on improvement/worsening. This provides broad-based supports to almost all learners.

Answer 120

Individualized Education Programs model in which there are different tiers of intervention that keeps students in a system for help, just at different levels depending on improvement/worsening. This provides broad-based supports to almost all learners, and prevents students from "bobbing in and out" of the "Wait to Fail" model

Answer 121

There isn't just one area, but rather multiple regions working concert. It also heavily depends on the type of math that is being done. IPS and PFC are two prominent examples, however, as preferential neurons for numerosity exist here.

Answer 122

process by which we are faster to process numbers farther apart from each other vs. numbers that are close together; this effect decreases as we age

Answer 123

process by which we are faster to process larger ratios than smaller ratios; for same distance between ratios, harder with larger numbers; important because it governs reaction times for all numbers, suggesting some underlying system for quantities

Answer 124

As numerical distance increases, IPS activity decreases alongside reaction time (remember we know that reaction time decreases with larger numerical distances, so this makes sense)

Answer 125

shift from frontal (PFC) to parietal (IPS) with increasing age, suggesting that more working memory is required in children doing arithmetic at early ages, and as we learn math more we move away from this.

Answer 126

1. Approximate number sense (ANS; approximate) - basic capacity to distinguish which of two quantities is larger, depends on regions in the IPS 2. Verbal storage (exact) - used for over-learned arithmetic facts, such as addition, multiplication tables, and is dependent on verbal coding; storage is in the left angular gyrus (AG) 3. Mental number line (approximate) - used for mental math, uses brain regions in the posterior superior parietal lobule (PSPL)

Answer 127

Participants solved two problem types: exact, selecting correct answer, or approximate, selecting closest answer. There was greater IPS activation for approximate, representative of the ANS, and greater angular gyrus (AG) activation for exact. This is consistent with patients who lose the ability to either subtract or multiply (i.e., no verbal storage).

Answer 128

Children performed significantly worse when both the target and choice alternatives were represented with discrete quantities rather than the proportions involving continuous quantities.

Answer 129

impairments to numerical magnitude processing, that is, can't tell which of two numbers is bigger; affects between 3-11% of the population, and affects those with high or average intelligence; also has high comorbidity with dyslexia

Answer 130

10 year old dyscalculics had a Weber fraction similar to neurotypical 5 year olds, significantly lower than other 10 year olds and adults

Answer 131

We have systems for processing whole numbers, such as ANS, and RPS is similar but for fractions. It was found that both monkeys and young children have a perceptual foundation for processing fractions that tends to develop with age.

Answer 132

Areas that activate in the brain when we think about ratios also activates when we think about fractions, suggesting that there is some correlation.

Answer 133

Human abilities, like math and reading, depend on specialized neural circuits; however, these abilities are too recent to have driven evolutionary changes. Therefore, similar to how the FFA respecialized into the VWFA for reading, math involves specialization in the parietal lobe during development (shift to parietal lobe as math experience increases). This shows idea that domain general systems, like PFC, are driving the reuse of pre-existing neuronal circuits that evolved for one purpose for another similar purpose (neuronal recycling).

Answer 134

Study placed electrodes in the IPS and revealed that specific neurons respond preferentially to one type of number or number of items <--- this represents ANS. This is homologous to the human brain, and behavior matches neural profile. Lots of lateral PFC

Answer 135

A study showed that higher accuracy on math problems when using problem solving strategies instead of memorization/recall methods.

Answer 136

New, never before seen algorithms that can be solved using learned rules activated lateral PFC and IPS

Answer 137

Algorithms that were previously taught and practiced activated the angular gyrus (AG). Makes sense because AG used in math for facts (think verbal storage)

Answer 138

Study sought to answer whether training intervention then rest or rest then training lead to better performance. Dyscalculics show lower recruitment of lateral PFC and IPS regions during math activity, but training intervention followed by rest in this study showed improved math scores and increase in IPS recruitment. Remediation, similar to in dyslexia!

Answer 139

1. Lateral PFC has decreased activity 2. IPS has decreased activity

Answer 140

1. Both disorders show underlying deficits in perception (phonemic analysis for dyslexia and ANS/number sense for dyscalculia) 2. Both show underlying deficits in activity in relevant brain regions (dyslexia: VWFA, IFG (Broca's), PT (Wernicke's), arcuate fasciculus; dyscalculia: lateral PFC, IPS) 3. Behavioral testing of each gave rise to targeted learning intervention 4. Brain imaging before and after interventions showed remediation (improvement in learned skills, recruitment of brain regions during those skills similar to neurotypical)

Answer 141

1. Math anxiety is not being bad at math 2. Math anxiety is not disliking stats and calculus 3. Math anxiety is not an inevitable trait

Answer 142

more people are more anxious about their performance with that math, and thinking about the math induces more anxiety than actually doing math

Answer 143

Psychological discomfort is identifiable via insula activity when TOLD they were going to do math, but not when actually doing the math; again, math is not really the primary factor for math anxiety, instead it's the discomforting thought of doing math

Answer 144

the greater the complexity of math problems (>= 4 items), math anxiety begins to significantly increase reaction time; this is a similar trend to OTS, where serial counting takes over after 3-4 items

Answer 145

People with low working memory experience poorer performance in low-pressure test situations, so it is theorized that low working memory worsens the severity of math anxiety

Answer 146

Subjects with math anxiety showed GREATER activity in brain regions related to pain processing when CUED that they were about to do a math problem than when they were actually DOING the math problem! Note: little to no recruitment in these areas for language/word problems, so it's definitely a math thing

Answer 147

1. Insula, region of psychological discomfort, active when thinking about math 2. Pain processing regions more active when CUED about math than when actually doing the math 3. Increased right amygdala (emotional activation) and VMPFC ("what to do with emotional signal from amygdala") activation 4. As a consequence of increased right amygdala activation, suppression of bilateral IPS and superior parietal lobe (SPL) as well as increased left amygdala activation

Answer 148

High math anxiety increases right amydala and VMPFC activation, and the right amygdala drives: 1. Increased left amygdala 2. Increased VMPFC 3. Decreased IPS and superior parietal lobe (SPL) Shows that emotional activation decreases recruitment of math regions!

Answer 149

1. Female teachers and society may transmit it to girl students (gender ability beliefs) 2. Parents transmit it to children

Answer 150

Teacher math anxiety in general decreases math achievement in both boys and girls, but female teacher math anxiety on the basis of gender ability beliefs can be passed off to girls, decreasing girls math achievement. A study had girls write/identify their gender at the top of test, and those who confirmed gender had significantly worse math scores than those who didn't

Answer 151

1. Talk/write about it - expressive writing about math anxiety resulted in greater math performance in HIGH anxiety students, but same as control in LOW anxiety students 2. Practicing math via tutoring ("confronting fear") decreased math anxiety and decreased right amygdala activation in response to math 3. Bedtime Math app (both preventative and remedying)

Answer 152

A study showed 83% overlap in scores among males and females on a math exam; this overlap differed by country, however

Answer 153

the overlap in gender similarities is smaller in some countries than others, and this largely implies cultural implications more-so than biological sex

Answer 154

Children aged 3-8 do not differ in Weber fraction, children aged 3-6 do not differ on counting, and even at age 8, no differences in pencil-and-paper math

Answer 155

Children were asked to watch math content, and it was shown that brain systems active in children watching the math were largely the same in boys vs. girls. Specifically, L/R IPS, L/F IFG, and anterior cingular cortex all showed similar levels of neural activity

Answer 156

Interest and motivation! 1. 3rd grade boys report greater confidence and interest in math relative to girls 2. Interest in math decreased between 5th and 7th grae in both boys and girls, but girls initial interest was lower 3. Cultural differences emphasize separate forms of motivation (e.g., intrinsic value, utility value, expectations of success, etc.)

Answer 157

App designed to increase interest/motivation in mathematics to prevent math anxiety and increase math comfortability. Study showed overall growth in math ability with high usage of the app, even in math anxious parents!

Answer 158

complex mix of biological ability, practice and exposure, as well as social and societal factors (e.g., teacher/parent anxiety, social messaging)

Answer 159

facet of ecological validity that refers to how much performance in a study correlates to real-world performance

Answer 160

facet of ecological validity that refers to how much cognitive processes in a research task resemble real-life cognitive processes

Unit 1 Multiple Choice & Short Answer Flashcards

(188 cards)