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Biology 112 > Unit 1 notes from textbook + slides > Flashcards

Unit 1 notes from textbook + slides Flashcards

(85 cards)

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1
Q

What is cell theory?

A

1)all organisms are made up cells
2)cells come from pre-existing cells
3) the cell is the fundamentak unit of life

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2
Q

Characteristics of prokaryotes

A

bacteria and archea
small
lack a nucleus
have a nucleoid
cell wall
first forms of life
circular chromosome
carry additional DNA in the form of plasmids

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3
Q

Characteristics of eukaryotes

A

animals, plants, fungi, protists
have a nucleus
extensive internal compartmentalization
big
membrane bound organelles
linear chromosomes

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4
Q

what do all cells have?

A

all cells have a cell membrane or plasma membrane that controls the exchange of material with the environment

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5
Q

characteristics of DNA

A

double helix
stores information

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6
Q

characteristics of proteins

A

molecules that provide structure
internal architecture
shape
ability to move
various chemical reactions depends on proteins
polymers of amino acids

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7
Q

transcription definition

A

the synthesis of RNA from a DNA template, describes the copying of info from one form into another

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8
Q

translation definition

A

the synthesis of proteins from an RNA template, this process converts info in the language of nucleic acids to info in the language of proteins

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9
Q

central dogma of biology

A

DNA to RNA (mRNA messenger) to proteins

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10
Q

gene definition

A

the DNA sequence that corresponds to a functional product such as a protein

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11
Q

DNA replication definition

A

allows genetic information to be passed from cell to cell or from an organism to its progeny

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12
Q

mutation definition

A

error in DNA during replication or damage from the environment

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13
Q

metabolism definition

A

chemical reactions by which cells convert energy from one form to another and build or break down molecules, harness energy from the environment

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14
Q

characteristics of viruses

A

cannot function on their own, but require a host cell to reproduce
when a virus infects a host cell, it co-opts the cellular machinery to make copies of itself
it infects the host cell by binding to the cell’s surface, inserting its genetic material into the cell

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15
Q

In bacteria, why does translation occur very quickly?

A

because there is no nuclear membrane that seperates DNA from the surrounding cytoplasm, transcribed mRNA is immediately translated into proteins by ribosomes

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16
Q

what is the cell wall made up of?

A

peptidoglycan polymer made of sugars and amino acids

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17
Q

how do photosynthetic bacteria gain CO2?

A

by diffusion of CO2 from the environment into the cell

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18
Q

why is it easier for a small cell to allow for diffusion?

A

has more surface in proportion to its volume and the interior parts of a small cell are closer to the surrounding environment than those of a larger cell, small enough for molecules to diffuse into the cell’s interior

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19
Q

endomembrane system

A

network of membranes that allow for the cell to continue functioning even as it changes shape

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20
Q

endocytosis definition

A

the cytoskeleton and membrane system enable eukaryotic cells to engluf molecules or particles; including other cells

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21
Q

phagocytosis definition

A

form of endocytosis in which eukaryotic cells surround food particles and package them in vesicles that bud off from the cell membrane

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22
Q

exocytosis definition

A

molecules or cytoplasmic waste formed within the cell is packaged in vesicles and moved to the cell surface for removal

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23
Q

what must be true in order for a cell to divide successfully?

A

must be large enough to divide into two and contribute sufficient nuclear and cytoplasmic components to each daughter cell

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24
Q

how do prokaryotic cells reproduce?

A

via binary fission
a cell replicates its DNA, increases in size and divides into two daughter cells (receive one copy of the replicated parental DNA)

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25
how do eukaryotic cells reproduce?
divide the nucleus by mitosis, divide cytoplasm into two daughter cells by cytokinesis the DNA of eukaryotes is found in the nucleus therefore, cell division requires first the breakdown and then the reformation of the nuclear envelope
26
environmental conditions that could affect the rate at which a cell can divide
levels of available nutrients competition temperature pH osmotic pressure
27
Lag phase definition
adjustment period individual bacterial cells are growing but not readily dividing making the tools they need ie. expressing genes that encode for particular proteins like structural proteins, enzymes, integral membrane proteins no display of a net increase in growth at this phase
28
exponential phase definition
when bacteria have adapted they maximize all the benefits from the nutrient media replication occurs phase where the overall population of cells undergoes binary fission at a constant rate replication is at its maximum increases exponentially
29
stationary phase definition
key nutrients are beginning to deplete therefore, bacteria start to compete for nutrients, metabolic waste products released from the bacterial cells builds up in environment (toxic to bacterial cells) net zero growth equal amount of individual cells actively dividing as there are cells that are dying
30
death phase definition
death of many bacterial cells, more cells are dying than actively dividing
31
nucleic acids definition
encode and transmit genetic information polymers of nucleotides linekd with phosphodiester bonds
32
carbohydrates definition
provide a source of energy and make up the cell wall in bacteria, plants and algae polymers of simple sugars composed of C, H, O usually in the ratio of 1:2:1 major source of energy for metabolism linked with glycosidic bonds
33
lipids definition
make up cell membranes, store energy and act as signaling molecules covalently linked via ester linkage
34
amino acid structure
central carbon atom (alpha carbon), covalently linked to four groups: an amino group (NH2) a carboxyl group (COOH) a hydrogen atom (H) an R group or side chain that differes from one amino acid to the next
35
peptide bond formation
formed between the carbon atom in the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the nitrogen atom in the amino group of the next amino acid covalent linkage involves the loss of a water molecule
36
nucleotide characteristics
contains a 5-carbon sugar, a nitrogen-containing compound called a base and one or more phosphate groups.
37
sugar for DNA and RNA
deoxyribose (hydrogen on the second carbon), ribose (OH group on the second carbon)
38
Two types of nitrogen containing bases
Pyrimidine bases: have a single ring and include cytosine and thymine Purine bases: have a double ring and include guanine and adenine
39
how are nucleotides connected?
In DNA and RNA, each adjacent pair of nucleotides is connected by a phosphodiester bond, which forms when a phosphate group in one nucleotide is covalently joined to the sugar unit in another nucleotide
40
how are bases connected?
via hydrogen bonds Adenine is double bonded to Thymine Cytosine is triple bonded to Guanine
41
polysaccharides function
provide long term energy storage (starch and glycogen) or structural support (cellulose in plant cell walls)
42
how are monosaccharides connected?
building blocks of complex carbohydrates and attached to each other by covalent bodns called glycosidic bonds formed between carbon one of one monosaccharide and a hydroxyl group carried by a carbon atom in a different monosaccharide molecule
43
property shared by lipids
all hydrophobic, chemically diverse
44
fatty acid definition
long chain of carbon atoms attached to a carboxyl group
45
glycerol defintion
a 3 carbon molecule with OH groups attached to each carbon
46
fatty acid bonding
the carboxyl end of each fatty acid chain attaches to glycerol at one of the OH groups, releasing a water molecule
47
saturated vs unsaturated fatty acid
unsaturated: contain double bonds, have a kink at each double bond saturated: no double bonds, max number of hydrogen atoms attached to each carbon, straight chains
48
forces between neighbouring fatty acid chains
Van der Waals Forces because of these forces the melting point of fatty acids depends on their length and level of saturation increase in length higher melting point the more kinks, reduces tightness of the molecule, decreases interactions and decreases melting point
49
hydrophilic
water loving, polar
50
hydrophobic
water fearing, non-polar
51
order of strength of bonds
1) covalent 2)ionic 3)Ion-PD 4)Hydrogen bonds 5)PD-PD 6) Ion-ID 7) PD-ID 8) ID-ID
52
phospholipids properties and structure
glycerol backbone attached to a phosphate group and two fatty acids phosphate group is hydrophilic because its polar and fatty acid tails are hydrophobic and nonpolar amphipathic
53
micelle shape
lipids with bulky heads and a single hydrophobic tail are wedge-shaped and pack into spherical structures called micelles
54
bilayer shape
lipids with less bulky headgroups and two hydrophobic tails are roughly rectangular form a bilayer hydrophobic heads are the outside surface, hydrophobic tails inside
55
liposomes
when phospholipids are added to a test tube of neutral water they spontaneously form spherical bilayer structures called liposomes that surround a central space, resembling a cell
56
why is the lipid bilayer said to be fluid?
lipid molecules are able to move within the plane of the membrane because of the weak vanderwaal forces that break and reform
57
different types of membrane proteins and their functions
transporters: moving ions or molecules across the membrane receptors: allow the cell to receive signals from the environment enzymes: catalyze chemical reactions anchors: attach to other proteins and help maintain cell structure/shape
58
integral membrane proteins definition
permanetly associated with cell membranes and cannot be seperated from the membrane without destroying it most integral proteins are transmembrane proteins that span the entire bilayer
59
peripheral membrane proteins definition
temporairly associated with the bilayer or with integral membrane proteins through weak noncovalent interactions, can be removed
60
what can and can't move through the bilayer?
Can't: the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer prevents ions and charged polar molecules from moving across it many are too large to move across Can: gases and non polar molecules such as lipids can mvoe across the bilayer small uncharged molecules are able to move through the bilayer to a very limited extent
61
diffusion definition
the net movement of substances such as ions and molecules from areas of higher to lower concentration
62
passive transport definition
occurs when molecules move across a cell membrane by diffusion (ie. simple diffusion) occurs when molecules move passively down a concentration gradient through protein transporters (ie. facilitated diffusion)
63
two types of membrane transporters
channel proteins: provides an opening between the inside and outside of the cell through which certain molecules can pass, depending on their shape and charge. Some are gated, meaning they can open in response to some sort of signal either chemical or electrical carrier proteins: binds to and then transports specific molecules. Binding of the transported molecule induces a conformational (shape) change in the membrane protein, allowing the molecule to be transported across the bilayer
64
two ways water moves through the lipid bilayer
1) passive transport to a limited extent 2) channel proteins called aquaporins, allow water to move much more readily via facilitated diffusion
65
osmosis
net movement of a solvent such as water across a selectively permeable membrane such as the cell membrane water moves from regions of higher water concentration to regions of lower water concentration
66
active transport definition
transport against a concentration gradient requires ATP to move substances through transport proteins embedded in the membrane
67
secondary active transport definition
transport against a concentration gradient driven by an electrochemical gradient
68
primary structure of a protein
the sequence of amino acids in a protein, first level of protein structure, ultimately determines how a protein folds
69
secondary structure of a protein
interactions between streches of amino acids in a protein form local secondary structures H-bonds can form between the carbonyl group in one peptide bond and the amide group in another, thus allowing localized regions of the polypeptide to fold, the R groups project outwards from the alpha helix
70
tertiary structure of a protein
the 3D conformation of a single polypeptide chain, usually made up of several secondary structure elements, results from the interactions between the amino acid R groups, this structure usually includes loops or turns in the backbone that allow R groups to sit near each other in space and for bonds to form determines the function
71
denaturation definition
process by which molecules are unfolded and therefore lose their structure due to chemical treatment or high temperature that disrupts the hydrogen bonds and ionic bonds holding the tertiary structure together
72
allosteric enzymes definition
enzymes that are regulated by molecules that bind at sites other than their active sites activity of these enzymes can be influenced by inhibitors and activators
73
negative feedback definition
the final product inhibits the first step of the reaction used to maintain homeostasis
74
what must an organic molecule contain?
at least one C-H bond
75
what end are amino acids added to?
Carboxyl end
76
what end are nucleotides added to?
the 5' carbon of a new monomer is attached to the 3' carbon of the existing strand or 1st monomer
77
what end are sugars added to?
4' end of the incoming monomer is added to the 1' end of the 1st monosaccharide
78
graph of facilitated transport
level of glucose inside=level of glucose outside ie converges to 1
79
describe the process of macromolecular assembly of proteins in the cell
the process is spontaneous energetically favorable delta G<0 folded proteins are more stable happens due to the hydrophobic effect
80
nucleoside definition
sugar+base
81
what is the backbone of DNA?
deoxyribose sugar + phosphate
82
what two interactions occur between bases?
hydrogen bonds and stacking interactions (help stablize the strands)
83
what drives the spontaneous formation of the DNA double helix?
the hydrophobic effect
84
major and minor grooves definition
regions where proteins bind to the DNA different proteins recognize the different sequences of bases
85
why can't ions diffuse through the lipid membrane?
ions in an aqueous solution are usually surrounded by water molecules and are larger called hydration shells

Biology 112 (5 decks)

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