Unit 1 Test - Ecosystems and Biodiversity Flashcards
(187 cards)
1
Q
What are the ways of knowing?
A
The different paths we take to understanding ourselves and our environment
2
Q
How is the scientific way of knowing characterized?
A
Observations of the natural/physical world to understand how the natural/physical world works (at least in part)
3
Q
What are ways of knowing other than science?
A
Faith, intuition, myth, and revelation
4
Q
What is the point of other ways of knowing?
A
ALL ways of knowing add value to the human experience, but in unique ways
5
Q
Benefit of scientific way of knowing?
A
Allows us to make confident predictions, which can be extremely valuable
6
Q
Benefit of faith/intuition way of knowing?
A
Allows us to ponder the supernatural, which is also meaningful
7
Q
What are the limits of science? (4 of them)
A
Science doesn’t make moral or aesthetic judgments, tell us how to use scientific knowledge or draw conclusions about supernatural phenomena or explanations
8
Q
The Nature of Science definition
A
How we describe all the characteristics that distinguish science as a way of knowing from all other ways of knowing
9
Q
Why is the Nature of Science important?
A
It enables you to critically consumer information and then make confident, informed, evidence-based questions about personal and societal issues
10
Q
Is scientific knowledge open to revision in light of new evidence?
A
Yes, it is simultaneously reliable and subject to change. This is one of the characteristics of science as a way of knowing
11
Q
Do scientific investigations use a variety of methods?
A
Yes, there is no single step-by-step method that captures the complexity of doing science, thought there are many shared values and perspectives that characterize the scientific approach to understanding nature. This is one of the characteristics of science as a way of knowing
12
Q
Is scientific knowledge based on empirical evidence?
A
Yes, all scientific knowledge is a combination of observations and inferences based on empirical evidence. This is one of the characteristics of science as a way of knowing
13
Q
Empirical definition
A
Based on observation or experience, as opposed to theory or pure logic (trying it out rather than just thinking it through)
14
Q
Is science a human endeavor?
A
Yes, which has several implications for science involving creativity, subjectivity, geolocation, and science’s effects. This is one of the characteristics of science as a way of knowing
15
Q
How is creativity part of science?
A
Since science is a human endeavor, creativity is a vital, yet personal, component in the production of scientific knowledge
16
Q
How is subjectivity part of science?
A
Since science is a human endeavor, subjectivity and bias are unavoidable because science involves individual human thinking and perceptions (which is why we have peer review)
17
Q
How is geolocation part of science?
A
Scientific contributions can be and have been made by people in any part of the world
18
Q
Explain science’s effects?
A
Since science is a human endeavor, science does not occur in a vacuum, so it affects societies and cultures, and is in turn affected by the societies and cultures within which it is conducted
19
Q
Does science address questions about the natural/physical world?
A
Yes, it by definition is limited to naturalistic methods and explanations. This is one of the characteristics of science as a way of knowing
20
Q
Do scientific laws, models, mechanisms, and theories describe and explain natural phenomena?
A
Yes, a primary goal of science is to form laws and theories, which are terms with VERY specific meanings. This is one of the characteristics of science as a way of knowing
21
Q
What are scientific LAWS?
A
They describe universal relationships related to how some aspect of the natural world behaves under certain conditions, so they can predict the results of intital conditions
22
Q
Scientific law examples?
A
Newton’s Laws of motion predict how far a baseball travels when hit by a bat swung with a certain force, and Boyle’s Law of gas predicts the pressure in your car tires on a hot vs cold day
23
Q
What are scientific THEORIES?
A
They are inferred explanations of some aspect of the natural world, so they try to provide the most logical explanation for why things happen the way they do
24
Q
Scientific theories examples?
A
Newton’s Theory of Gravity explains why a baseball makes an arc in the air after it’s hit, and Darwin’s Theory of Evolution by natural selection explains why populations of organisms change over time
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Scientific LAWS vs THEORIES?
Scientific laws predict what happens, while scientific theories propose why
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What must all well-established laws and theories do?
Be consistent and compatible with best available evidence, be successfully tested in a wide range of situations, and be applicable to and consistent with ongoing scientific research and discoveries
27
Ecosystem definition
A unit of biology comprised of living elements that interact with each other AND their non-living environments. Can be natural or human-made, and different sizes
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Ecosystem function definition
The ecological processes that control fluxes and flows of materials (nutrients, organic matter), energy (sunlight, stored energy), and info (DNA) through an environment
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What are some ecosystem functions in a terrestrial ecosystem?
Water and air penetrate soil, plant/animal matter breaks down into soil, decomposers break down organic matter, and soil stores nutrients which plants absorb
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What are some ecosystem functions in an aquatic ecosystem?
Photosynthesis, bioturbation, benthivory, nutrient excretion, sinking particles, wave action, depth/stratification, emergence, and nutrient cycling
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What are some ecological processes that control the fluxes and flows of materials?
Eating, pooping, bioturbation (animals mixing stuff up), animal migrations, sinking, wind and water currents, death, and decomposition
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What are some ecological processes that control the fluxes and flows of energy?
Photosynthesis, chemosynthesis, food webs and trophic interactions
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What are some ecological processes that control the fluxes and flows of information?
Sexual and asexual reproduction, animal migrations, and seed dispersal
34
Ecosystem services definition
The benefits (supporting, provisioning, regulating, and non-material) that people obtain from ecosystems which hold special value for humans and make human life possible
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What are supporting ecosystem services?
Necessary for production of all other ecosystem services
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Supporting ecosystem services examples?
Habitat, photosynthesis, soil formation, and biodiversity
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What are provisioning ecosystem services?
The material benefits people get from ecosystems
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Provisioning ecosystem services examples?
Building materials, fibers, medicine, and paper
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What are regulating ecosystem services?
The benefits obtained from ecosystem processes
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Regulating ecosystem services examples?
Storm protection, pollination, clean water, and climate regulation
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What are non-material ecosystem services?
The benefits obtained from the educational, cultural, and aesthetic values of the ecosystem
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Non-material ecosystem services examples?
Enabling scientific research, inspiring research and development, nature holding great importance to many cultures and spiritualities
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How have indigenous people contributed to medicinal knowledge?
Indigenous peoples globally have cultivated vast knowledge on the medicinal properties of many plants over many generations
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Bioprospecting definition
Exploring biodiversity resources for their potential to provide ecosystem services to humans, carries out by researchers, companies, and institutions
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Biopiracy definition
The unauthorized appropriation of biological knowledge by individuals or institutions seeking control through patents or intellectual property rights
46
Case of the Pacific Yew summary?
Pacific Yew tree found to have Taxol (highly effective cancer drug) is on many Native American tribes of the PNW's lands. Bristol-Myers was given exclusive rights to Taxol, aside from Native lands, which continued until public urged fed gov to better manage the Pacific Yew population, eventually switching to synthetic Taxol
47
Ethnobotany definition
The study of how people of a particular culture and region make use of indigenous (native) plants
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Biodiversity definition
The variety of life that exists in the world, or in a particular habitat or organism
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How can we define variety of life?
There are several ways, or "levels"
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What is the first level of biodiversity?
Genetic variety/diversity (within a species)
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What is genetic variety/ diversity?
Refers to the diversity that exists among organisms of the same species (in their genetic material, DNA)
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What is genetic diversity's relationship with species survival?
The greater the genetic diversity, the greater the chance of survival (for ALL species)
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What is the second level of biodiversity?
Species variety/diversity (within an ecosystem)
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What is species variety/ diversity?
Refers to the number (and relative abundance) of different species all inhabiting the same ecosystem
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Which is the most common level of biodiversity?
The second level, of species diversity
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How do we define a species?
The sum of all the populations of similar organisms that are reproductively compatible, and produce living offspring that can also reproduce
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What traits do two different species have? (usually)
They are reproductively isolated from each other, look different from each other, and have unique evolutionary histories
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What is the most common way to measure biodiversity?
Measuring species diversity is the most common measure, largely because it is so straightforward
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How can we measure species diversity?
By counting all the different species in an ecosystem or defined area
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How many species in our "defined area" of Earth?
We don't exactly know, but we estimate from 7-9 million
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How can we measure functional diversity?
Counting all of the different functions provided by species in an ecosystem (multiple different species could be serving the same function)
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Keystone species definition
A keystone species has a disproportionately high impact on its ecosystem compared to its relatively low abundance in that ecosystem. Often have most impact on ecosystem via trophic interactions with a single or few prey species and often are high tropic level predators
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How are the relationships between biodiversity and ecosystem function represented?
Four general hypotheses (models), which we know now are all oversimplified and wrong, but their underlying principles are true and they can be useful
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What is the LINEAR relationship model between biodiversity and ecosystem function?
The more biodiversity (functional diversity aka more species each doing something different for the ecosystem), the higher level of overall ecosystem function
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How do the species' functions vary in the LINEAR relationship model between biodiversity and ecosystem function?
Each species in this ecosystem provides an equally unique and important function for the ecosystem
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How would the loss of a species affect the ecosystem of a LINEAR relationship model between biodiversity and ecosystem function?
The loss of any one species would have the same effect on ecosystem function as any other species
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Key idea of LINEAR relationship model between biodiversity and ecosystem function?
High functional diversity among species = HIGH overall ecosystem function
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Success of ecosystem of LINEAR relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem function?
If it's the only existing relationship in an ecosystem, it can be fragile, as certain functions depend on a single species if there is no functional redundancy
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What is the REDUNDANT relationship model between biodiversity and ecosystem function?
Each species that is added to an ecosystem increases the function of that ecosystem to a point, but then eventually adding new species doesn't really affect the ecosystem function
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How do the species' functions vary in the REDUNDANT relationship model between biodiversity and ecosystem function?
Some species in this ecosystem provide unique functions for this ecosystem, but many do not (they provide a function already provided by another species present in the ecosystem
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Key idea of REDUNDANT relationship model between biodiversity and ecosystem function?
Biodiversity + Functional redundancy = STABILITY
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Success of ecosystem of REDUNDANT relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem function?
Can be more stable, as the redundancy provides buffering against species loss, as long as there is enough foundational biodiversity in the system (as long as a sufficiently high ecosystem function exists in the first place)
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What is the KEYSTONE relationship model between biodiversity and ecosystem function?
When the keystone species is lost, that causes a drastic, sudden drop in ecosystem function, but when other non-keystone species are lost, there is relatively less effect on ecosystem function
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How do the species' functions vary in the REDUNDANT relationship model between biodiversity and ecosystem function?
There is a single, extremely important species in this ecosystem which contributes a disproportionately high amount of functionality to the ecosystem
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Success of ecosystem of REDUNDANT relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem function?
Very unstable since all depends on the survival of the keystone species
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What does the relationship between ecosystem functions and ecosystem services look like?
Generally a positive, linear relationship (with function on X axis, service on Y axis)
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Why is it important to know which conditions produce the highest ecosystem functions?
So that we can protect those ecosystem functions, and obtain the highest level of ecosystem services
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Biodiversity, ecosystem functions, and ecosystem services connection examples?
-Forest biodiversity increases -> pollination increases -> crop production increases
-Forest biodiversity increases -> tree/shrub growth patterns increase -> storm protection increases
-Forest biodiversity increases -> resistance to pests/invasives increases -> pest/invasives regulation increases
-Forest biodiversity increases -> biomass production increases -> building materials increase
79
What is the relationship between ecosystem services and biodiversity itself?
Positive, linear relationship
80
Ways to help protect biodiversity (and in turn ecosystem functions and services)?
Create alternative lawns, diverse turfgrass ecosystems, pollinator habitats and "No Mow" zones
81
How can we define biological evolution?
Changes in a population of organisms over time, more specifically changes in the frequency of inherited traits over successive generations in populations of organisms
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Population definition
A group of individuals that are all the same species
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What is micro-evolution?
Going from one generation to the next, and considering the changes in the population with each new generation (at the genetic level). Small-scale and deals with shorter periods of time
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What is macro-evolution?
What we see when we look at the over-arching history of life, including divergence of populations and the evolution of different species from a common ancestor over many generations. Large-scale
85
Where did the ideas about life's history of change come from?
Partially from Darwin's Origin of Species, but other scientists reached similar conclusions
86
Who is Alfred Russel Wallace?
Scientist around Darwin's time who wrote a paper presenting natural selection and reached the same conclusions as Darwin independently
87
Why did Darwin's "On the Origin of Species" get famous?
He published for a general audience, not scientists, and got most/all of the theory's credit
88
What mechanisms drive biological evolution?
-Natural selection (key and powerful; Darwin and Wallace's main idea)
-Migration (gene flow)
-Founder effect
-Genetic drift
-Bottleneck
-Sexual selection
89
Natural selection definition
The process whereby organisms that happen to be better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring (Main driver of biological evolution and depends on genetic diversity within a population of organisms)
90
Steps of natural selection
1. Individuals of a population vary in their heritable traits
2. Struggle to exist under a selective pressure from the environment
3. Individuals with more favorable trait variations in the environment will survive more than those without them
4. Over multiple generations, the population as a whole becomes adapted to the environment as each new generation has a higher frequency of favorable traits
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Selective pressure definition
Any external agent that leads to differential survival among individuals in a population due to different traits they happen to have
92
Selective pressure examples
Disease/pathogen, new predator, change in predation vulnerability, climatic event, change in food type/availability, or change in habitat type/availability
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What does genetic diversity do?
Allow populations to respond to selective pressures or environmental changes without going extinct
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How did we get genetic pressure to begin with?
Changes in specific nucleotide sequence within DNA (aka mutations)
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Mutation definition
Permanent changes in genetic information that can be passed from parent to offspring IF they occur in gametes (egg or sperm) and therefore can be a factor in the outcome of natural selection
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What can cause mutations?
Exposure to radiation or chemicals, mistakes when the cell copies DNA, viruses, etc.
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Why do mutations occur?
At random with respect to the selective pressure, and not in response to necessity for survival or reproduction or induced by selective pressure
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How can biodiversity be described as a driver of evolution?
Biodiversity at the genetic level drives the process of natural selection because it allows for trait variability within a population
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How do we observe macroevolution?
Since its timescale surpasses the amount of time humans have been on earth, we rely on observed microevolutionary processes combined with geology, fossil evidence, and characteristics of living organisms
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Speciation definition
Formation of new species
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How does speciation occur?
Over time, two different populations of the same species can separate and eventually form two different species, and when this process repeats again and again over billions of years, we achieve the biodiversity that exists today
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What's the formula for macroevolution?
Microevolution + 3.8 billion years = macroevolution
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How often do speciation events happen?
Typically in bursts, as species tend to exist relatively unchanged for a long time then a rapid environmental change drives rapid evolutionary change that results in new species
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What happens when the rate of species lost exceeds the rate of new species formed?
The loss of biodiversity
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How can we stop the loss of biodiversity due to speciation being outpaced?
We don't have millions of years to wait for the lost biodiversity to be replaced, so the most important thing we can do now is conserve what we do have
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Reproductive isolation definition
When two populations cannot mate and/or produce viable offspring, regardless of geographic isolation
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What are the two main reproductive isolation mechanisms?
Pre-zygotic and post-zygotic mechanisms
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What are pre-zygotic mechanisms?
Reproduction is inhibited BEFORE the zygote (fertilized egg) is created, preventing the union of sperm and egg
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What are the types of pre-zygotic mechanisms?
Temporal, ecological/habitat, behavioral, and mechanical
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What is the temporal pre-zygotic mechanism?
Occurs when two species mate at different times of the year
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Temporal pre-zygotic mechanism example?
Frogs live in the same pond breed during different seasons (summer vs spring)
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What is the ecological/habitat pre-zygotic mechanism?
Occurs when two species occupy different habitats
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Ecological/habitat pre-zygotic mechanism example?
Lions and tigers can potentially interbreed but usually occupy different habitats
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What is the behavioral pre-zygotic mechanism?
Occurs when two species have different courtship behaviors
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Behavioral pre-zygotic mechanism example?
Certain groups of birds will only respond to species-specific mating calls
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What is the mechanical pre-zygotic mechanism?
Occurs when physical differences prevent copulation/pollination
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Mechanical pre-zygotic mechanism example?
The genitalia of a male bushbaby will only fit into the genitalia of a same-species female
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What are post-zygotic mechanisms?
Inhibit reproduction AFTER the zygote (fertilized egg) is created. A hybrid offspring is formed, but it cannot reproduce sufficiently to support future generations
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What are the types of post-zygotic mechanisms?
Hybrid/offspring inviability, hybrid infertility, and hybrid/generational breakdown
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What is the hybrid/offspring inviability post-zygotic mechanism?
Hybrids are produced but fail to develop to reproductive maturity
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Hybrid/offspring inviability post-zygotic mechanism example?
Certain types of frogs from hybrid tadpoles that die before they can become a frog
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What is the hybrid infertility post-zygotic mechanism?
Hybrids fail to produce functional gametes
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Hybrid infertility post-zygotic mechanism example?
Mules are sterile hybrids resulting from mating between a horse and a donkey
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What is the hybrid/generational breakdown post-zygotic mechanism?
F1 hybrids are fertile, but F2 generation fails to develop properly
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Hybrid/generational breakdown post-zygotic mechanism example?
The offspring of hybrid copepods have less potential for survival or reproduction
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Where are the genetic differences for pre-zygotic and post-zygotic genetic differences coming from?
Mutations and sexual reproduction
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What is the history of biodiversity on earth?
Shown in "Geologic Time"
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What is the biodiversity crisis?
The loss of our natural biodiversity at an alarming and dangerous rate
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What is causing the biodiversity crisis?
Habitat loss, invasive species, over-exploitation, pollution, and climate change
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Habitat loss definition
Usually linked to changes in the way humans use land (land-use changes)
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Land use change causes
Destruction of natural (undeveloped) land for inhabiting or making a living, as a by-product of other activities, as fragmentation by roads, and as fragmentation by other human constructions
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Land use changes for resources in or on that land examples?
Mining for resources, cutting down trees for timber, and bottom trawling for fish
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Land use changes for inhabiting or making a living examples?
Housing development/ urbanization, clearing land for growing crops, and clearing land to graze as pasture
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Land use changes as a by-product for other activities examples?
Agricultural runoff (large scale), oil spills, mining runoff, and agricultural runoff (local scale)
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Land use changes due to fragmentation by human construction examples?
Roads, dams, agriculture, and urbanization
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Habitat fragmentation definition
Breaking up of habitat into smaller, unattached pieces
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Why is habitat fragmentation an issue?
Breaks up and isolates populations, and creates more edges and therefore makes habitats more vulnerable to "edge effects"
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Edges (of habitats) definition
The part of the ecosystem on the perimeters
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Edge effects definition
The influences of adjacent habitat on edge habitat, resulting in environmental differences between the edge and interior. Edges are more exposed to weather and other environmental influences, such as noise, direct sunlight, temperature, and humidity, which can affect the health and survival of organisms that live in fragmented habitats
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What does the habitat fragmentation breaking up and isolating of organism populations do?
The number of organisms in each new, fragmented population is smaller, which also reduces the gene pool, leading to a lower genetic diversity in the population and vulnerability to negative effects of inbreeding and not being able to survive selective pressures
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How can we help avoid and reverse habitat loss?
Increase available habitat and protect what remains by creating designated spaces like wilderness areas, wildlife preserves, and marine protected areas
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What are the benefits of restoring fragmented or isolated populations?
Connecting fragmented populations allows gene flow, increasing genetic diversity, increasing biodiversity, increasing ecosystem function, and increasing ecosystem services
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What are ways to help restore fragmented or isolated populations?
Reconnect fragmented habitat (e.g. wildlife corridors, crossing structures) and introduce new genetic diversity into an isolated population
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Wildlife structures definition
Create new habitat that connect areas of existing habitat so that fragmented populations can be restored
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Wildlife structures examples?
Florida Wildlife Corridor, Yellowstone to Yukon corridor, and creating habitat corridors for jeweled geckos in New Zealand by planting Coprosma shrubs
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Crossing structures definition
Human-made structures over/under roads that connect fragmented habitat
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Crossing structures example?
Animal underpasses and overpasses in Banff National Park
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What are the benefits of introducing new genetic diversity into an isolated population?
Prevent inbreeding and improve ability to withstand selective pressures
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Introducing new genetic diversity into an isolated population example?
Florida Panthers
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Florida Panther summary?
Were inbred and isolated after years of habitat loss and over-exploitation, expected soon extinction, biologists moved Texas cougars to Florida to mate, producing non-inbred kittens, and now population is healthy and expanding
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What happened to the FL Panther population after the TX population was introduced?
FL population survived and increased
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Why did cross-breeding among different populations of panthers help the FL population survive and increase in number?
Increased genetic diversity
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How and why does genetic variation affect a population's ability to survive in the face of disease and parasites?
Increased chances that a certain genetic combination will allow an individual to better fend off diseases/parasites
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What was the primary mechanism/process that increased genetic diversity in the FL population during this short amount of time?
Sexual reproduction
154
Why were there such significant genetic differences between the two populations (FL and TX)?
Evolution. The two populations were geographically isolated, did not interbreed, and that allowed their populations to genetically diverge to an extent due to the different environments, random events, and selective pressures they experienced, even though they were the same species
155
Invasive species definition (according to federal law)
A non-native species whose introduction does or is likely to cause economic harm or environmental harm or harm to human health
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Non-native species definition
A species not naturally found in an ecosystem (also sometimes called "exotic species" or "introduced species")
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Non-native US species examples? (non-harmful)
DC's cherry trees (native to Japan), ring-necked pheasant (native to temperate regions of Asia), and tulips (native to Islamabad and Pakistan)
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Non-native US species examples? (harmful/invasive)
Zebra mussels, buckthorn, kudzu, and Asian carp
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Native species definition
A species naturally found (has naturally evolved) in an ecosystem
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Native species US examples?
Bald eagle, wild turkey, American bison, and red maple
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Endemic species definition
A native species that is naturally found nowhere else on earth (has uniquely evolved in a very specific location/environment)
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Endemic species US/GA example?
Pigeon mountain salamander
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How do invasive species threaten biodiversity?
Invasive species often outcompete native species for food, habitat, and other resources, causing native populations to suffer, be displaced, or sometimes go extinct. Any time a population or species is displaced from an ecosystem or goes extinct altogether, biodiversity decreases
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What is the cost of invasive species in the US?
$137 billion annually
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How do invasive species invasions start?
Transport and introduction, whether intentional or unintentional
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Transport definition (in invasive species invasions)
Movement to a non-native habitat
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Introduction definition (in invasive species invasions)
Alive in new, non-native habitat
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What makes an invasive species invasion successful?
High reproductive capacity, habitat generalism, dietary generalism, and few or zero predators in new habitat
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Habitat generalism definition
Can survive in wide range of habitats and conditions
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Dietary generalism definition
Can eat a wide range of food
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Burmese Pythons case summary
Suspected release from FL pet store in hurricane, population established in Everglades, have negatively impacted native ecology and efforts to control cost around $1 million each year
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What action is Florida taking against the Burmese Pythons?
Florida Python Challenge rewards hunters who capture pythons, and removed over 200 in 2011, but hasn't much reduced the impact of the pythons
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What are the solutions for invasive species?
Prevent invasions in the first place, kill or move all individuals of an invasive species, or manage invasive populations
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How does the kill or moving all invasive species individuals solution work?
Rarely possible, but was successfully done with goats on the Galapagos by introducing sterile, female goats to find the male goats and capture them
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How does the manage invasive populations solution work?
Stop it from spreading further, use another species (predator/grazer) to keep it under control, and kill enough individuals each year to limit population growth
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Extinction definition (GLOBAL extinction)
Refers to the loss of a species from the entire planet
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Extinction definition (MASS extinction)
Describes the losses of entire phyla, classes, or orders (i.e. many related species) from the planet
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Extinction definition (LOCALIZED extinction)
Refers to the loss of species from a defined geographic area of ecosystem
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Known extinctions during modern times examples?
Dodo bird, thylacine, Hawaii chaff flower, and St. Helena olive tree
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Natural global extinction rate definition
Natural extinction occurs due to a species' inability to adapt to natural changes in the environment
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What is the natural/background global extinction rate?
1-16 species per year
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What is the current estimated global extinction rate?
10-100 species per day
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What cause do all 5 past mass extinction events have in common?
Climate change
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Are we experiencing a 6th mass extinction event?
The rapid loss of biodiversity we are experiencing now is what students think might be a Sixth Mass Extinction event
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What is causing the current potential 6th Mass Extinction event?
Human activities driving habitat loss, invasive species, pollution, over-exploitation, and climate change
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Anthropocene definition
A proposed new geologic epoch that scientists say is due to the drastic impact our human activities have on the Earth
