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Chemistry > Unit 1.4 - Bonding > Flashcards

Unit 1.4 - Bonding Flashcards

1
Q

What are the two types that chemical bonding can be divided into?

A

Intramolecular bonding
Intermolular bonding

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2
Q

Intramolecular bonding

A

Bonds that form within the molecule - they hold atoms in place

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3
Q

What are the bonds that form within a molecule?

A

Intramolecular bonding

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4
Q

What are the bonds that hold atoms in place?

A

Intramolecular bonding

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5
Q

Intermolecular bonding

A

Bonds formed between molecules

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6
Q

What are the bonds formed between molecules?

A

Intermolecular bonding

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7
Q

Give an example of intermolecular bonding

A

Hydrogen bonding

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8
Q

What is hydrogen bonding an example of?

A

Intermolecular bonding

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9
Q

Which type of bonding is stronger - Intramolecular or intermolecular?

A

Intramolecular

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10
Q

Energy per mole of bonds for Intramolecular bonds

A

100 - 1000kJ per mole of bonds

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11
Q

What are Intramolecular bonds responsible for within the molecule?

A

The chemical reactivity of the molecule

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12
Q

What are the intermolecular bonds responsible for in a molecule?

A

The physical properties of the molecule

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13
Q

What type of bonds are responsible for the chemical reactivity of a molecule?

A

Intramolecular bonds

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14
Q

What type of bonds are responsible for the physical properties of a molecule?

A

Intermolecular bonds

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15
Q

How can the chemical reactivity of a molecule be observed?

A

In a chemical reaction

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16
Q

What can be observed of a molecule during a chemical reaction?

A

Its chemical reactivity

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17
Q

What are physical properties?

A

Properties that can be observed or measured without changing the identity of the substance

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18
Q

Name some physical properties

A

Melting point
Boiling point
Solubility

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19
Q

Under which type of bonds do ionic, covalent and coordinate bonds fall?

A

Intramolecular bonds

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20
Q

Name 3 Intramolecular bonds

A

Ionic bonds
Covalent bonds
Coordinate bonds

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21
Q

Ionic bonds

A

A bond formed by the electrical attraction between positive and negative ions (cations and anions)

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22
Q

A bond formed by the electrical attraction between positive and negative ions (cations and anions)

A

Ionic bond

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23
Q

Covalent bonds

A

Has a pair of electrons with opposed spin shared between 2 atoms with each one giving 1 electron

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24
Q

Has a pair of electrons with opposed spin shared between 2 atoms with each one giving 1 electron

A

Covalent bonds

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25
Q

Coordinate bond

A

A covalent bond in which both of the shared pair of electrons come from 1 of the atoms

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26
Q

A covalent bond in which both electrons come from 1 of the atoms

A

Coordinate bond

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27
Q

When do ions form?

A

When atoms gain or lose electrons by electron transfer

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28
Q

When does the process of forming ions stop?

A

When the atom which loses and the one which gains an electron have stable electronic structures

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29
Q

Describe the charges on two ions formed during electron transfer

A

Opposite charges

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30
Q

What forms when atoms gain or lose electrons?

A

Ions

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31
Q

What usually loses an electron to what during ionic bonding?

A

Metals to non-metals

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32
Q

What do metals form during ionic bonding?

A

Positive ions (cations)

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33
Q

What form positive ions (cations) during ionic bonding?

A

Metals

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34
Q

What do non-metals form during ionic bonding?

A

Negative ions (anions)

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35
Q

What form negative ions (anions) during ionic bonding?

A

Non-metals

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36
Q

Cations

A

Positive ions

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37
Q

Positive ions

A

Cations

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38
Q

Negative ions

A

Anions

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39
Q

Anions

A

Negative ions

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40
Q

What IS the ionic bond during ionic bonding?

A

The electrostatic force of attraction between 2 ions of opposite charge

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41
Q

Which rule do we follow for ionic bonding and what does this mean?

A

The octet rule - 8 electrons in the outer shell

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42
Q

What do we use to show ionic bonding?

A

Dot-cross notation

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43
Q

What is the charge on an in equal to?

A

The amount of electrons gained or lost by the atom

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44
Q

What do many elements form ions which have the same electronic configuration as?

A

Noble gases

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45
Q

What do atoms do during covalent bonding?

A

Share electrons

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46
Q

What type of bonding involves atoms sharing electrons?

A

Covalent bonding

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47
Q

What does a single covalent bond contain?

A

Two electrons, one from each atom, shared between them with opposite spins

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48
Q

What do the electrons in a covalent bond have?

A

Opposite spins

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49
Q

How many electrons are shared in a double covalent bond?

A

4

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50
Q

How many electrons are shared in a triple covalent bond?

A

6

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51
Q

What type of bonding involves two electrons shared?

A

Single covalent bond

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52
Q

What type of bonding involves 4 electrons shared?

A

Double covalent bond

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53
Q

What type of bonding involves 6 electrons shared?

A

Triple covalent bonding

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54
Q

What type of elements usually for covalent bonds?

A

Non-metals

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55
Q

What do non-metals usually form?

A

Covalent bonds

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56
Q

When does covalent bonding come to an end?

A

When both atoms have stable electronic configurations (the same as a noble gas)

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57
Q

What IS a covalent bond?

A

An electrostatic force of attraction between the 2 nuclei and the shared electrons

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58
Q

What’s stronger - a covalent or an ionic bond?

A

Covalent

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59
Q

How is a single covalent bond demonstrated?

A

—

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60
Q

What does — represent?

A

A single covalent bond

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61
Q

How is a double covalent bond shown?

A

==

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62
Q

What does == demonstrate?

A

A double covalent bond

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63
Q

What’s the name for the electrons not used in bonding?

A

Lone electrons

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64
Q

Lone electrons

A

Electrons not used in bonding

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65
Q

Describe triple covalent bonds - which elements has these?

A

Nitrogen - they’re strong bonds

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66
Q

Why is nitrogen an unreactive gas?

A

It has strong triple covalent bonds

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67
Q

What do triple covalent bonds in nitrogen cause it to be? Why?

A

Unreactive, as this is a strong bond

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68
Q

What is added to crisp packets and why?

A

Nitrogen, as it’s an Unreactive gas due to its strong triple covalent bond

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69
Q

Give a use for nitrogen and explain why

A

In crisp packets, as it’s an Unreactive gas so it keeps them crisp

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70
Q

What’s another word for coordinate bonds?

A

Dative bonds

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71
Q

What are dative bonds?

A

Coordinate bonds (old word for it)

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72
Q

What are coordinate bonds a type of?

A

Covalent bond

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73
Q

Where do the electrons come from for coordinate bonds?

A

Both electrons are supplied by 1 atom

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74
Q

Where does a coordinate bond form between 2 atoms?

A

Between an atom which has a lone pair or electrons and another atom which is electron deficient (i.e - has an empty orbital)

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75
Q

Electron deficient

A

Has an empty orbital

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76
Q

What is an atom which has an empty orbital?

A

Electron deficient

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77
Q

What forms between an atom with a lone pair of electrons and another which is electron deficient?

A

A coordinate bond

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78
Q

Give 3 examples of coordinate bonds forming

A

-between ammonia + boron trifluoride
-hydrated proton (H30+)
-ammonia ion (NH4+)

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79
Q

What do the following all form?
-ammonia and boron trifluoride
-hydrated proton (H30+)
-ammonia ion (NH4+)

A

Coordinate bonds

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80
Q

Which element can expand its octet rule during ionic bonding and what to?

A

P, to 10 electrons in the outer shell

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81
Q

What type of compound is sodium chloride?

A

Ionic

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82
Q

What shape ions do sodium and chlorine have?

A

Nearly spherical

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83
Q

Name 2 ions which have a nearly spherical shape?

A

Sodium and chlorine

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84
Q

What’s special about a spherical ion?

A

Uniform electric field around it - can attract ions of opposite charge in all directions

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85
Q

What type of ions have a uniform electrical field around them and can attract ions of opposite charge in all directions?

A

Spherical ions

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86
Q

What can an ionic bond be classed as and why?

A

Non-directional as it can attract ions of opposite charge in all directions

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87
Q

What type of bond is non-directional and why?

A

Ionic as it can attract ions of opposite charge in all directions

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88
Q

Even though ionic bonds are non-directional bonds, what do we have to consider? Why?

A

Due to the number of ions being very large, we have to consider repulsion between ions of the same charge and attraction forces

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89
Q

What occurs between ions of the same charge?

A

Repulsion

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90
Q

What do repulsion and attraction forces do?

A

Restrict the number of ions of opposite charge which can pack around an ion and the positions which the ions can occupy

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91
Q

Restrict the number of ions of opposite charge which can pack around an ion and the positions which the ions can occupy

A

Repulsion and attraction forces

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92
Q

When are there many repulsion and attraction forces to consider?

A

When the number of ions is very large

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93
Q

How do ions pack and what does this mean?

A

A lattice arrangement - there’s an equilibrium between the attractive and the repulsive forces

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94
Q

Lattice arrangement

A

Equilibrium between the attractive forces and repulsive forces (ions)

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95
Q

What does ions lattice arrangement depend on?

A

The charges on the two ions and their relative sizes

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96
Q

What do the charges on two ions and their relative sizes affect?

A

The lattice arrangement

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97
Q

Why are chlorine ions larger on the sodium chloride lattice?

A

Due to a larger atomic radius (extra shell of 8 electrons)

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98
Q

What’s strongest - ionic or covalent bonds?

A

Covalent

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99
Q

What’s an example of covalent bonds being the strongest?

A

Carbon has a giant covalent structure, and has the highest melting point of all

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100
Q

Which element has the highest melting point and why?

A

Carbon due to its giant covalent structure

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101
Q

What does Carbon’s giant covalent structure give it?

A

The highest melting point

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102
Q

Where is most of electron density centred?

A

Around nuclei

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103
Q

What is mostly centred in the nuclei?

A

Electron density

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104
Q

What IS a covalent bond?

A

Attractive force between the positive nuclei and the negative charge cloud of the shared electron pair

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105
Q

Attractive force between the positive nuclei and the negative charge cloud of the shared electron pair

A

Covalent bond

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106
Q

Where are the shared electrons in a covalent bond?

A

Between the nuclei

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107
Q

What’s the net affect of the shared electrons being between the 2 nuclei in a covalent molecule?

A

The net effect of the attractive forces between the electrons and the nuclei is to hold the 2 nuclei together

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108
Q

What holds two nuclei together in a covalent molecule?

A

The net effect of the attractive forces between the electrons and the nuclei is to hold the 2 nuclei together

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109
Q

Repulsive forces between ions

A

Forces between inner shells of electrons on each atom
Forces between the positive charges on nuclei
Forces between inner shells of electrons and charge cloud of the bond

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110
Q

What determine a bond’s length?

A

The balance between the attractive and repulsive forces

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111
Q

What do the balance between the attractive and repulsive forces determine?

A

The bond length

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112
Q

Under which conditions do metals easily lose up to 3 outer electrons?

A

As long as there’s a non-metal available to form an ionic bond

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113
Q

What 2 types of elements for ionic bonds?

A

Metal with a non-metal

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114
Q

What does a metal with up to 3 outer electrons do if there’s no non-metal present?

A

Merge the outer main levels of all of its atoms so that electrons are no longer associated with any 1 atom, but are shared between all of them

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115
Q

What type of bond occurs when atoms merge their outer main levels so that electrons are associated with all atoms?

A

Metallic bonding

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116
Q

What does 2 atoms merging their outer main levels together form?

A

A sea of electrons, or a pool of delocalised/valence electrons

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117
Q

When does a pool of delocalised/valence electrons form?

A

When metals merge the outer main levels of their atoms when there’s no non-metal available for ionic bonding

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118
Q

A pool of..what type of electrons? (Metals merging their outer main levels of atoms)

A

Delocalised/valence

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119
Q

How are the “sea” of electrons and the metal atoms charged?

A

Sea = negative
Metal atoms = positice

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120
Q

What IS a metallic bond?

A

The attraction between the negatively charged “sea” of electrons and the positive metal atoms

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121
Q

The attraction between the negatively charged “sea” of electrons and the positive metal atoms

A

Metallic bond

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122
Q

What can metals do well and why?

A

Conduct electricity and heat (delocalised electrons can carry a current)

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123
Q

What type of materials can conduct electricity and heat well and why?

A

Metals due to the delocalised electrons being able to carry a current

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124
Q

What does more delocalised electrons mean for a metal?

A

Higher melting point and a better conductor of electricity

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125
Q

What makes a metal a better conductor of electricity and gives it a higher melting point?

A

Having more valence electrons

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126
Q

What decides how many delocalised electrons a metal has?

A

How many electrons the atom can lose

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127
Q

What does how many electrons a metal atom can lose affect?

A

The amount of delocalised electrons

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128
Q

What happens to melting and boiling points across the period and why?

A

Increase
Ionic charge increases
Ionic size decreases
Number of outer shell electrons increases
Attraction increases

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129
Q

Electronegativity

A

The ability of an atom to attract a pair of electrons to itself in a covalent bond

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130
Q

The ability of an atom to attract a pair of electrons to itself in a covalent bond

A

Electronegativity

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131
Q

What are the most electronegative elemtents?

A

N, O and F (F is most)

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132
Q

What’s the electronegativity of all noble gases and why?

A

0
Cannot accept electrons de to a full outer shell

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133
Q

Which elements have an electronegativity value of 0 and why?

A

Noble gases as they cannot accept electrons due to a full outer shell

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134
Q

Electronegativity trend across a period + explanation

A

Increases (increased nuclear charge)

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135
Q

Electronegativity trend down a group + explanation

A

Decreases (increased screening)

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136
Q

What type of elements have low Electronegativity values?

A

Metals

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137
Q

What type of elements have high electronegativity values?

A

Non-metals

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138
Q

Describe the electronegativity values of the elements in the middle of the periodic table

A

Intermediate

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139
Q

What is electronegativity measured on?

A

A Pauling scale

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140
Q

What ca electronegativity determine?

A

The type of bond that will be formed

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141
Q

What determines the type of bond that will be formed?

A

Electronegativity

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142
Q

The greater the difference in electronegativity…

A

…the more ionic the character of the bond

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143
Q

What makes the character of a bond more ionic?

A

Greater difference in electronegativity

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144
Q

Which two elements have the biggest difference in electronegativity and what does this mean?

A

Potassium and fluorine - they form the most ionic bond

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145
Q

What do many ionic bonds have?

A

Covalent character

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146
Q

What type of bond is an ionic bond if it has covalent character?

A

Polar covalent

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147
Q

Polar covalent bond

A

Ionic bond with covalent character

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148
Q

What type of bond is between 2 identical species? Why?

A

Non-polar covalent - there’s no difference in electonegativity

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149
Q

What do non-polar covalent bonds occur in and why?

A

Two identical species as there’s no difference in electronegativity

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150
Q

What type of bond ones no difference in electronegativity lead to?

A

Non-polar covalent

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151
Q

Where is the electron pair in a polar covalent bond?

A

Isn’t always situated exactly between the 2 atoms - it’s pulled towards the more electronegative one in a covalent bond

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152
Q

In what type of bond is the electron pair not situated exactly equally between 2 atoms?

A

Polar covalent bond - pulled towards the more electronegative one in a polar bond

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153
Q

What’s caused in a polar bond?

A

Difference in electronegativity causes a permanent dipole

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154
Q

What causes a permanent dipole?

A

The difference in electronegativity in a polar bond

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155
Q

What does a greater difference in electronegativity mean for a bond?

A

More polar bond

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156
Q

What makes a bond more polar?

A

Greater difference in electronegativity

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157
Q

Describe the atoms in a non-polar covalent bond?

A

The two atoms are the same, so they have equal electronegativity

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158
Q

Where is the electron pair in a non-polar covalent bond? Why?

A

Shared equally between the two atoms as they’re the same and have equal electronegatives

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159
Q

What type of bond has the electron pair shared equally and why?

A

Non-polar due to the atoms being the same, so they have equal electronegativity

160
Q

What moves towards the more electronegative element?

A

Electron densiy

161
Q

Where does electron density move?

A

Towards the more electronegative element

162
Q

What do we have if ALL of the electron density is by one element?

A

Exclusive + and - charges (ionic bond)

163
Q

In what type of bond do we have exclusive + and - charges?

A

Ionic bond

164
Q

Where is the electron density in an ionic bond?

A

All next to the more electronegative element

165
Q

Where is electron density in a polar covalent bond?

A

Towards the more electronegative element

166
Q

What type of bond is formed when the electron density is towards the more electronegative element?

A

Polar covalent bond

167
Q

Draw an electron density diagram presenting a non-polar covalent bond

A

(Check notes)

168
Q

Draw an electron density diagram presenting a polar covalent bond

A

(Check notes)

169
Q

Draw an electron density diagram presenting an ionic bond

A

(Check notes)

170
Q

In the electron density diagram for what type of bond would it be distorted towards the electronegative end?

A

Polar covalent bond

171
Q

In what type of electron density diagram are the electronegatives equal?

A

Non-polar covalent bond

172
Q

In what type of electron density diagram do we have exclude + and -?

A

Ionic bond

173
Q

What does a very large difference in electronegativity mean?

A

Fully ionic bond (higher % ionic character)

174
Q

Do ionic bonds show some covalent character?

A

Yes

175
Q

What character do ionic bonds still show?

A

Some covalent character

176
Q

Polarisation of ions

A

When small positive ions (cations) pull electron density off neighbouring ions due to some covalent character

177
Q

When small positive ions (cations) pull electron density off neighbouring ions due to some covalent character

A

Polarisation of ions

178
Q

When is polarisation of ions easier?

A

If the anion is large and has a high negative charge

179
Q

Which process is easier is an anion is large and has a high negative charge?

A

Polarisation of ions

180
Q

What pull electron density off of neighbouring ions during the polarisation of ions?

A

Small positive ions (cations)

181
Q

What happens eventually during polarisation of ions?

A

Electrons become shared and the bond increased in covalent character

182
Q

In which process do bonds increase in covalent character?

A

Polarisation of ions

183
Q

What do cations pull away and from what during polarisation of ions?

A

Electron density off neighbouring ions

184
Q

Draw an ionic bond with some covalent character

A

(Check notes)

185
Q

Draw an ionic bond with substantial covalent character

A

(Check notes)

186
Q

In general, what value of electronegativity difference forms non-polar covalent bonds?

A

Less than 0.4

187
Q

What does an electronegativity difference of less than 0.4 generally show?

A

A non-polar covalent bond

188
Q

Generally, what do electronegativity differences between 0.4 and 18 show?

A

Polar covalent bond

189
Q

What value for the difference in electronegativity generally represents a polar covalent bond?

A

0.4 - 1.8

190
Q

What does an electronegativity of more than 1.9 generally represent?

A

Ionic bond

191
Q

What difference in electronegativity implies an ionic bond?

A

1.9+

192
Q

Which forces explain physical properties of covalent molecules?

A

Intermolecular forces

193
Q

What properties do intermolecular forces explain and in what?

A

Physical properties of covalent molecules

194
Q

Name 2 Van der Waal forces

A

Induced dipole-induced dipole forces
Dipole-dipole forces

195
Q

What are induced-dipole induced-dipole and dipole-dipole forces examples of?

A

Van der Waal forces

196
Q

What’s the weakest Van der Waal force?

A

Induced dipole-induced dipole force

197
Q

What creates a higher boiling point?

A

Larger molecule
More electrons
Stronger intermolecular forces

198
Q

How do the quantity of electrons reflect on the strength of the intermolecular forces in a compound?

A

More electrons = stronger intermolecular forces

199
Q

Can each halogen be liquified? Why is this strange?

A

Yes, even though the covalent bond between the molecules is non-polar

200
Q

What does a stronger attraction between electrons lead to?

A

Higher melting points

201
Q

Why do larger molecules lead to higher boiling points?

A

More electrons
Greater fluctuation in the electron cloud
Larger dipoles
Stronger attraction

202
Q

What forms a stronger attraction in terms of dipoles?

A

Larger dipoles = stronger attractions

203
Q

What causes a larger dipole?

A

A greater fluctuation in the electron cloud due to more electrons

204
Q

What is a greater fluctuation in the electron cloud caused by and what does this lead do?

A

More electrons
Larger dipoles

205
Q

How can non-polar covalent bonds form temporary dipoles?

A

At any instant, the distribution is not equal with the electrons being more under the influence of 1 atom due to constant movements of electrons in the atom

206
Q

Why is the distribution of electrons in a non-polar covalent bond not always equal?

A

Constant movements of the electrons in an atom

207
Q

What does the constant movements of electrons in an atom lead to?

A

Non-polar covalently bonded molecules forming temporary dipoles

208
Q

Draw the temporary dipole between iodine molecules with a non-polar covalent bond

A

(Check notes)

209
Q

When can a halogen (with a non-polar covalent bond) be liquified?

A

When forming temporary dipoles through induced dipole-induced dipole forces

210
Q

What can a temporary dipole do to another temporary dipole in a nearby molecule?

A

Induce it to cause a force of attraction between them

211
Q

Induced dipole - induced dipole force

A

When a temporary dipole induces another temporary dipole in a nearby molecule, causing a force of attraction between them

212
Q

When a temporary dipole induces another temporary dipole in a nearby molecule, causing a force of attraction between them

A

Induced dipole - induced dipole force

213
Q

What type of molecules do induced dipole - induced dipole forces occur in?

A

ALL molecules

214
Q

Which Van der Waal force occurs in ALL molecules?

A

Induced dipole - induces dipole forces

215
Q

What do dipole-dipole forces occur in?

A

Molecules containing a dipole (polar covalent bond)

216
Q

Which Van der Waal force occurs in molecules containing a dipole?

A

Dipole-dipole forces

217
Q

What does a dipole include?

A

One end with a slightly positive charge
Once end with a slightly negative charge
(Due to differences in electronegativities)

218
Q

What’s the name for a molecule with one end that has a slightly positive charge and the other with a slightly negative charge?

A

Dipole

219
Q

Why do dipoles exist?

A

Due to differences in electronegativity

220
Q

Which Van der Waal forces are temporary and which are permanent?

A

Temporary - induced dipole - induced dipole forces
Permanent - dipole dipole forces

221
Q

Dipole-dipole forces

A

When dipoles arrange themselves so that the negative region of one molecule is close to the positive region of another molecule

222
Q

When dipoles arrange themselves so that the negative region of one molecule is close to the positive region of another molecule

A

Dipole-dipole forces

223
Q

Which type of force is generally referred to with “Van der Waal force”?

A

Induced dipole -induced dipole force

224
Q

Which Van der Waal force strengthens intermolecular forces doing between molecules the most?

A

Dipole-dipole force

225
Q

What do dipole-dipole forces do more than induced dipole - induced dipole forces?

A

Strengthen intermolecular forces

226
Q

Compounds with which type of forces have the highest boiling points with similar molar mass - dipole dipole or induced dipole-induced dipole?

A

Dipole-dipole forces

227
Q

How does having stronger intermolecular forces affect molecules with dipole-dipole forces? (Physical property)

A

Higher boiling point

228
Q

What are two molecules with identical molar mass that have completely different boiling points and why?

A

Propanone and butane
Much higher in propanone - dipole dipole forces
Induced dipole - induced dipole in butane

229
Q

What’s propanone also known as?

A

Acetone

230
Q

What’s acetone?

A

Propanone

231
Q

What’s the issue with dipole-dipole forces?

A

Dipoles aren’t always aligned to produce an attraction between them due to the random movements of molecules
Very weak

232
Q

Which type of force has an issue with the alignment of dipoles?

A

Dipole dipole forces

233
Q

How do dipole dipole forces get stronger?

A

Strength of the force increases with the number of electrons in the molecule (i.e - its size)

234
Q

What does a larger molecule mean for the dipole-dipole force?

A

More electrons in the molecule - strength of the force increases

235
Q

What’s hydrogen bonding a special case of?

A

The dipole-dipole force

236
Q

Name a special case of a dipole-dipole force?

A

Hydrogen bonding

237
Q

Describe the trend in terms of boiling points for the period II hydrides compares to period III and explain why this is unexpected

A

Boiling points of period II hydrides are greater than period III
You’d expect the intermolecular forces to be stronger in period III

238
Q

What’s proof for the existence of hydrogen bonding?

A

The fact that the boiling points of period II hydrides are reader than period III (which is unexpected as you’d expect the intermolecular forces to be stronger in period III) - must be a stronger intermolecular force

239
Q

Hydrogen bond

A

An electrostatic force of attraction which forms between a hydrogen atom bonded to a highly electronegative atom in one molecule and a highly electronegative atom such as N, O or F in another molecule

240
Q

An electrostatic force of attraction which forms between a hydrogen atom bonded to a highly electronegative atom in one molecule and a highly electronegative atom such as N, O or F in another molecule

A

Hydrogen bond

241
Q

Highly electronegative elements

A

N, O or F

242
Q

Draw and label hydrogen bonding in water

A

(Check notes)

243
Q

Describe the covalent bonds in water

A

Very polar

244
Q

What’s longest - hydrogen bonds or covalent bonds?

A

Hydrogen bonds

245
Q

What does hydrogen bonding occur between?

A

2 electrostatic atoms

246
Q

Why does hydrogen bonding exist?

A

Hydrogen atoms are very small, and the atom in another molecule is highly electronegative

247
Q

Describe the hydrogen atom that attracts a lone pair of electrons for hydrogen bonding

A

Highly polarising 𝛿+ small hydrogen atoms

248
Q

What does the 𝛿+ hydrogen atom attract in a hydrogen bond?

A

A lone pair of electrons form a highly electron ache you’ve atom in another molecule

249
Q

Which bonds are we breaking when boiling water or melting ice?

A

Hydrogen bonds

250
Q

How do we break hydrogen bonds in water

A

Boil water
Melt ice

251
Q

What, apart from water, does hydrogen bonding occur in?

A

Alcohol, ethanol and ammonia

252
Q

What type of bonding occurs in alcohol, ethanol and ammonia?

A

Hydrogen bonding

253
Q

Draw and label hydrogen bonding in ammonia

A

(Check notes)

254
Q

Which physical properties of compounds does hydrogen bonding affect ?

A

-higher boiling points than compounds with similar molar mass and no hydrogen bonding
-more soluble in water

255
Q

What do compounds have higher boiling points than with hydrogen bonding?

A

Compounds with similar molar mass and no hydrogen bonding

256
Q

What type of bonding makes a substance more soluble and gives it a higher boiling point?

A

Hydrogen bonding

257
Q

Compare ice’s density to water

A

Less dense than water (only substance where the solid is less dense than the liquid)

258
Q

Describe the structure of ice

A

Open stucture
Held by hydrogen bonds
Tetrahedral
Angles of 109.5 degrees

259
Q

Why is ice less dense than liquid water?

A

When it melts, hydrogen bonds are broken and water molecules are able to move closer together

260
Q

What properties does hydrogen bonding give liquid water?

A

Unusually high boiling point
High surface tension value

261
Q

What gives water an unusually high boiling point and a high surface tension value?

A

Hydrogen bonding

262
Q

Name 3 types of compounds that are soluble in water

A

Alcohols, carboxylic acids, amines

263
Q

Why are alcohols, carboxylic acids and amines all soluble in water?

A

They form hydrogen bonds with it

264
Q

Is ammonia soluble in water? Why?

A

Yes, because it can for hydrogen bonds with it

265
Q

What type of compounds are soluble in water?

A

Ones that can form hydrogen bond with it

266
Q

What does a compound’s ability to form hydrogen bonds with water do to it?

A

Makes it soluble in water

267
Q

Is methane soluble in water? Why?

A

No, as it only has Van der Waal forces between molecules and cannot form hydrogen bonds with water

268
Q

Give an example of an Intramolecular force

A

Covalent bond

269
Q

What type of force is a covalent bond?

A

Intramoleular

270
Q

Intramolecular forces

A

Within molecules

271
Q

Forces within molecules

A

Intramolecular forces

272
Q

What do Intramolecular forces influence?

A

Chemical properties of molecules

273
Q

What affect ehe chemical properties of molecules?

A

Intramolecular forces

274
Q

Give examples of intermolecular forces

A

Van der Waal’s forces, Hydrogen bonding

275
Q

What type of forces are Van der Waal’s forces and hydrogen bonding types of?

A

Intermolecular forces

276
Q

Where do intermolecular forces exist?

A

Between molecules

277
Q

What type of forces exist between molecules?

A

Intermolecular forces

278
Q

What do intermolecular forces affect (give examples)?

A

The physical properties of molecules (melting and boiling points, solubility)

279
Q

What affects the physical properties of molecules (melting and boiling points, solubility)?

A

Intermolecular forces

280
Q

How do boiling points change down the group and why?

A

Increase down the group due to larger molecules having stronger Van der Waal forces

281
Q

When a compound boils, which bonds are broken and which are not?

A

Covalent bonds are NOT broken
Intermolecular forces ARE broken

282
Q

What’s an example of intermolecular forces being broken when a compound boils, not covalent bonds?

A

When water boils into steam, it doesn’t turn into hydrogen and oxygen. Steam is gaseous water.

283
Q

List the three main forces in order of strength, starting from the strongest

A

Covalent bonds
Hydrogen bonds
Van der Waal’s forces

284
Q

Which force us the strongest?

A

Covalent bonds

285
Q

Which force is the weakest?

A

Van der Waal’s forces

286
Q

Why are covalent bonds stronger than hydrogen and Van der Waal’s forces?

A

Distance between atoms is shorter due to increased attraction

287
Q

Draw ethanol (C2H2OH) forming hydrogen bonds with water

A

(Check notes)

288
Q

What would make something more insoluble in water? Why?

A

More non-polar groups, due a decreased effect of hydrogen bonds

289
Q

What would more non-polar groups do to a compound in water?

A

Make it more insoluble due to a decreased effect of hydrogen bonds

290
Q

What would decrease the effect of hydrogen bonds? What would this lead to?

A

More non-polar groups - become more insoluble in water

291
Q

What do we use to determine shapes of molecules and ions?

A

Valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR)

292
Q

VSEPR

A

Valence shell electron pair repulsion theory

293
Q

What is the general rule of VSEPR?

A

The shape adopted by a simple molecule or ion is that which keeps repulsive forces to a minimum

294
Q

What’s VSEPR used for?

A

Determining the shapes of molecules or ions

295
Q

How is VSEPR used to determine the shapes of molecules or ions?

A

By defending the number of electron pairs in the outer shell (valence shell) of a central atom

296
Q

Outer shell

A

Valence shell

297
Q

Valence shell

A

Outer shell

298
Q

The outer shell of which atom do we use for VSEPR?

A

A CENTRAL atom

299
Q

What do we determine for a central atom in VSEPR?

A

The number of electron pairs in the outer shell

300
Q

What does the shape of a simple molecule or ion do?

A

Keep repulsive forces to a minimum

301
Q

What type of bonds do molecules have?

A

Covalent bonds

302
Q

What do covalent bonds consist of and what’s significant about these?

A

A pair of electrons
Electrons are negatively charged
Each bond repels other bonds

303
Q

Why do bonds repel other bonds?

A

Electrons are negatively charged (a covalent bond consists of a pair of electrons)- each bond repels other bonds

304
Q

What type of bond consists of a pair of electrons?

A

Covalent bond

305
Q

What do bonds duo due to them being repulsive of each other?

A

Push each other as far apart as possible to reduce repulsive forces

306
Q

Why do bonds push each other as far apart as possible?

A

To reduce repulsive forces

307
Q

What would equal repulsions of bonds cause?

A

Equally spaced bonds

308
Q

What causes equal spaces between bonds?

A

Equal repulsions

309
Q

What would bonds be with less repulsive forces?

A

Further

310
Q

When would bonds be further away from each other?

A

With less repulsive forces

311
Q

How would bonds be with greater repulsive forces?

A

Closer

312
Q

When would bonds be closer?

A

With greater repulsive forces

313
Q

What’s a simple molecule?

A

One with a central atom and other’s bonded to it

314
Q

Molecule with a central atom and others bonded to it

A

Simple molecule

315
Q

What do most simple molecules have?

A

Standard shapes
Equal bond angles

316
Q

Why do most simple molecules have standard shapes and equal bond angles?

A

Equal repulsions between bond pairs

317
Q

What do equal repulsion’s between bond pairs in simple molecules do?

A

Give them standard shapes and equal bond angles

318
Q

What affects the angles between bonds and therefore the shapes of molecules?

A

Lone pairs on the central atom

319
Q

Where do lone pairs cause an effect?

A

On the central atom of a molecule

320
Q

What do lone pairs on the central atom of a molecule affect?

A

-angles between bonds
-shapes

321
Q

Bond pairs

A

These electrons are spread out so that they spend time around both atoms in the bond

322
Q

These electrons are spread out so that they spend time around both atoms in the bond

A

Bond pairs

323
Q

Lone pairs

A

They’re attached to 1 atom only and are not involved in bonding

324
Q

They’re attached to 1 atom only and are not involved in bonding

A

Lone pairs

325
Q

Do bond pairs or lone pairs have a greater power of repulsion? Why?

A

Lone pairs as they occupy a smaller volume of space

326
Q

Which type of pairs of electrons occupy the smallest volume of space and what does this mean?

A

Lone pairs, so they have a greater power of repulsion

327
Q

How are electrons found in the outer shell around central atoms?

A

In pairs

328
Q

Where are electrons found in pairs?

A

Around central atoms

329
Q

What do electron pairs do to each other?

A

Repel one another as far away as possible until they’re at their most stable spatial arrangement

330
Q

What leads to a stable spartial arrangement in a molecule?

A

Electron shells repelling one another as far away as possible

331
Q

What repel each other as far away as possible for a stable spartial arrangement in a molecule?

A

Electron pairs

332
Q

Sequence of repulsion

A

Least repulsive: bond pair-bond pair
Lone pair-bond pair
Most repulsive: Lone pair-lone pair

333
Q

Which pairs of electrons are most repulsive of each other?

A

Lone pair-lone pair

334
Q

Which pairs of electrons are least repulsive of each other?

A

Bond pair-bond pair

335
Q

When do we confide the affects of lone pairs?

A

After the arrangement of electron pairs has been worked out

336
Q

2 electron pairs…
Shape?
Bond angle?
Example?

A

Linear
180°
BeCl2

337
Q

How many electron pairs does a linear shaped molecule have?

A

2

338
Q

2 WHAT does a linear arrangement of a molecule have?

A

Electron pairs

339
Q

3 electron pairs…
Shape?
Bond angle?
Example?

A

Trigonal planar
120 °
BF3

340
Q

4 electron pairs…
Shape?
Bond angle?
Example?

A

Tetrahedral
109.5 °
CH4

341
Q

5 electron pairs…
Shape?
Bond angle?
Example?

A

Trigonal bipyramid
90/120 °
PCl5

342
Q

6 electron pairs…
Shape?
Bond angle?
Example?

A

Octahedral
90 °
SF6

343
Q

Bond angle 180 ° shape and electron pairs

A

Linear, 2

344
Q

Bond angle 120 ° shape and electron pairs

A

Trigonal planar, 3

345
Q

Bond angle 109.5 ° shape and electron pairs

A

Tetrahedral

346
Q

Bond angle 90 °/120 ° shape and electron pairs

A

Trigonal bipyramid, 5

347
Q

Bond angle 90 ° shape and electron pairs

A

Octahedral, 6

348
Q

What do bond angles represent in molecules?

A

The furthest distance bonding pairs can get

349
Q

Around which pair do lone pairs start causing effects to the shape and bond angle of a molecule?

A

Around the central atom

350
Q

What around the central atom causes effects for the bond angle and shape of molecules?

A

Lone pairs

351
Q

What would we expect to form with BeCl2 and why is this not the case?

A

Ionic bonds, but Be is small with a high charge, and so has a high polarising power to form covalent compounds

352
Q

Why does BeCl2 not form ionic bonds?

A

Be is small with a high charge, so it has a high polarising power to form covalent compounds

353
Q

Beryllium dichloride shape + explanation

A

(See notes)

354
Q

Boron trifluoride shape and explanation

A

(See notes)

355
Q

What type of diagram do we have to draw to represent the 3D shape of molecules?

A

Wedge diagrams

356
Q

Methane shape + explanation

A

(See notes)

357
Q

Phosphorus (V) chloride shape + explanation

A

(See notes)

358
Q

What can phosphorus do?

A

Make use of its d orbitals to expand its octet

359
Q

Name 2 elements that can make use of their d orbitals to expand their octets

A

Phosphorus, sulphur

360
Q

How do phosphorus and sulphur expand their octets?

A

Make use of their d orbitals

361
Q

What do potassium and sodium make use of their d-orbitals for?

A

Expanding their octets

362
Q

Sulphur (VII) shape + explanation

A

(See notes)

363
Q

Sketch a linear shape molecule

A

(Check notes)

364
Q

Sketch a Trigonal planar shaped molecule

A

(See notes)

365
Q

Sketch a tetrahedral shaped molecule

A

(See notes)

366
Q

Sketch a Trigonal bipyramid molecule

A

(See notes)

367
Q

Sketch an octahedral molecule

A

(See notes)

368
Q

How do we work out the shapes of molecules and ions?

A

1.number of electrons in the outer shell of the central atom
2.number of electrons provided by the other atoms (1 per atom)
3. (For ions) - what is the contribution of charge?
Add 1 electron for every negative charge
Remove 1 electron for every positive charge
4.number of electron pairs (divide total by 2)
5.number of bond pairs (formula shows) and lone pairs (whatever’s left over) - what effect does this have on the shape?

369
Q

How many electrons does each attached atom provide?

A

1

370
Q

What are irregular shapes caused by?

A

Extra repulsion caused by lone electrons

371
Q

What does extra repulsion from lone electrons cause?

A

Irregular shapes

372
Q

Name 2 molecules with irregular shapes - why?

A

Ammonia and water due to the greater repulsive effect of the lone pair reducing the bond angle

373
Q

Is the bond angle larger or smaller than expected with lone pairs causing their repulsive effects?

A

Smaller

374
Q

Draw (approx.) ammonias shape + explain

A

(See notes)

375
Q

Draw waters (approx.) shape and explain

A

(See notes)

376
Q

What shape does ammonia have?

A

Based on a tetrahedron, but as one of the pairs is a lone pair, it has a more pyramidal shape

377
Q

Molecule with a pyramidal shape

A

Ammonia

378
Q

Molecule with an angular shape

A

Water

379
Q

What shape is a water molecule?

A

Based on a tetrahedron, but has an angular shape due to lone pairs

380
Q

Sketch CO2s molecule + explain

A

(See notes)

381
Q

How do we calculate the shape of a molecule itch double bonds and why?

A

It’s calculated in the same way, as the double bond repels other bonds as if it were single, causing the same shape

382
Q

Difference between the shape of molecules with double bonds and regular ones

A

No difference - the bond repels other bonds as if it were single

383
Q

What’s important to remember when sketching CO2’s molecule?

A

It has double bonds

384
Q

What do we need to remember to include when drawing hydrogen bonds?

A

-polarisation (little charges) of everything involved
-lone electrons
-correctly placed hydrogen bonds

385
Q

What makes a bond polar?

A

The elements involved having a difference in electronegativity

386
Q

What does a difference in electronegativity mean in a bond?

A

That it’s polar

387
Q

Give 2 examples of species containing a coordinate bond

A

Ammonium ion (NH4+)
Hydrated proton (H30+)

388
Q

What do we do when asked to show any permanent dipoles?

A

Draw the little charges

389
Q

How is ammonia able to act as a base?

A

Has a lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom, so it can form a coordinate bond
So, it accepts a proton H+

390
Q

What’s the strongest from the following?
dipole-dipole
induced dipole-induced dipole

A

dipole-dipole

391
Q

What are induced dipole-induced dipole forces usually found in?

A

diatomics

392
Q

What does increased electronegativity mean in terms of the time taken for a reaction to take place?

A

More electronegative = faster reaction

393
Q

Shape of molecule with 3 bond pairs and 1 lone pair

A

Trigonal pyramidal

394
Q

Shape of molecule with 2 bonding pairs and 2 lone pairs

A

Bent

395
Q

Do noble gases have high or low boiling temperatures? Why?

A

Low
Does not form molecules and exists as separate atoms
Atoms are held together by weak induced dipole- induced dipole forces

396
Q

What do I need to remember to put down in all VSEPR questions?

A

That the shape is laid out in this way in order to keep repulsive forces to a minimum

397
Q

Name of shape of molecule with 3 bond pairs and 1 lone pair

A

Pyramidal

Chemistry (39 decks)

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