Unit 2 - Criminological theories - 4.1 Assess the use of criminological theories in informing policy development

Question 1

Biological theories influencing policies

What do biological theories believe causes criminality?

Answer 1

Criminality is caused by physical abnormalities within the individual

Question 2

What kinds of policies would biological theories lead to?

Answer 2

They aim to change the working of the criminal’s brain or body and cure the condition that causes their criminality

Question 3

Give three examples of biochemical processes and factors that have been linked to criminality

Answer 3

• Effects of the male sex hormone, testosterone
• Substance abuse
• Defincies in diet

Question 4

Drug treatment

How do drug treatments control criminal or anti-social behaviour?

Answer 4

Affecting the body’s biochemical processes to stop criminal or anti-social behaviour

Question 5

Briefly explain how alcohol treatments can be used through drugs

Answer 5

Alcohol abuse can trigger violent behaviour. Antabuse is used to treat alcoholism. It works by stopping the body from breaking down alcohol, causing hangover symptoms if the user drinks even a small amount. This is in the hopes of preventing them from drinking alcohol and in turn reducing violent crime

Question 6

Briefly explain how heroin addictions can be treated through drugs

Answer 6

Heroin addictions often lead to addicts committing crimes to pay for drugs. Methadone is used to treat addicts. It acts as a long-term alternative to heroin or to prevent withdrawal symptoms. Methadone helps to reduce crime as it stops addicts needing to steal to pay for drugs

Question 7

Briefly explain how sex offenders can be treated through drugs

Answer 7

Stilbestrol is a form of ‘chemical castration’ that has been used in prisoners to treat male sex offenders. It is a female hormone that suppresses testosterone as a way of reducing men’s sex drive. It has serious side effects including breast development and feminisation

Question 8

Briefly explain how drug treatments can be used for managing prisoners

Answer 8

Sedatives and tranquillisers such as valium, librium that are used to keep potentially violent or hyperactive prisoners calm

Question 9

What is Vivitrol?

Answer 9

A drug injected into patients to block the effects of Opioids so that they feel no need to continue using Opioids like heroin or morphine

Question 10

When is the drug administered and how often?

Answer 10

After the patient is sober from drugs for 7 days and every 4 weeks

Question 11

How many addicts come back to prison after getting their first free shot of Vivitrol?

Answer 11

30%

Question 12

Crime control policies : Diet

Briefly explain three ways in which diet can be used to try and change anti-social behaviour

Answer 12

• Gesch et al found that adding vitamins, minerals and fatty acids caused a large reduction in anti-social behaviour (37% reduction in case of violent incidents)
• Vitamin B3 used to treat forms of schizophrenia, often associated with violent behaviour
• Dietary changes have been used to try and control hyperactivity. For example, removing foodstuffs containing the artificial colouring Tartrazine from children’s diets

Question 13

Crime control policies : Surgery

Briefly explain two ways in which surgery can be used to prevent offending

Answer 13

Surgical castration - of sex offenders have been used in the past to change offending behaviour. For example, in Denmark and US.

Lobotomy - Procedure that involves cutting the connection between the frontal lobes in the brain and the thalamus. Used to treat sexually motivated and violent criminals. Can have very serious side effects so rarely used

Question 14

Give an example to illustrate how chemical substances can be used to control crowds

Answer 14

Tear gas may be used to control crowds or disperse rioters. It works by causing uncomfortable or distressing sensations, including vomiting, breathing difficulties and disorientation

Question 15

Genetic theories - Eugenics

What do genetic theories argue about criminality?

Answer 15

Criminality is transmitted by inheriting a ‘criminal’ gene

Question 16

Briefly describe the beliefs of the eugenicists

Answer 16

They believe that the human race is in danger of ‘degenerating’ because the poor were breeding at a faster rate compared to the higher classes. As a result, they were passing on the supposedly inferior genes (poverty) more quickly than the higher class were passing on their ‘superior’ genes thus lowering the average intelligence and the moral quality of the population

Question 17

Compulsory sterilisation

Why did Eugenicists argue that some people should be sterilised?

Answer 17

They argued that the ‘genetically unfit’ should be sterilised to stop them passing on their genes

Question 18

Describe an example of US policy based on the Eugenics

Answer 18

In 1927 the US Supreme Court ruled that it was legal to compulsory sterilise the ‘unfit’ including those with learning difficulties for ‘the protection and health of the state’. Other eugenic policies include forcing abortions and denying rights to marry

Question 19

The Nazis’ ‘racial purity’ policy

Why did the Nazis favour eugenic policies?

Answer 19

They believed in purifying the ‘Aryan master race’ by eliminating those who they deemed unfit to breed including physically and mentally disabled people. 400,000 were sterilised against their will and 70,000 were killed under the Nazis’ euthanasia policy

Question 20

How did the Nazis’ justify the genocide they carried out?

Answer 20

Eugenic policies - killing the ‘inferior race’ so that only the ‘Aryan master race’ remained

Question 21

Which groups were victim of the holocaust?

Answer 21

Jews (6 million killed), Gypies (1.5 million), lesbians and gays, disabled people and any other people who the Nazis’ believed were deviant

Question 22

Individualistic theories influencing policies - Psychoanalysis

Briefly explain how psychoanalysis links to Freud’s theory of personality

Answer 22

Psychoanalysis is based on Freud’s theory of personality. This highlights the unconscious conflicts between the id and superego. Psychoanalysis sees a weak superego as a cause of criminality since the person lacks a moral force to curb their selfish instincts. A weak superego can result from inadequate socialisation as a child.

Question 23

Crime control

What does psychoanalysis involve?

Answer 23

It involves bringing these unconscious conflicts and repressed emotions into the conscious mind so they can be revolved

Question 24

Why did August Aichhorn use psychoanalysis to treat young offenders? How does this link to Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theory?

Answer 24

The young offenders had uncaring or absent parents so they had failed to develop loving relationships. Normal socialisation had not taken place so the offenders had not developed a superego. Similar to Bowlby’s idea that maternal deprivation causes criminality.

Question 25

What did Aichhorn's methods involve?

Answer 25

Hypnosis and lengthy conversations

Question 26

According to Freud, why did some of his patient's thoughts have to be pushed away?

Answer 26

The thought was unacceptable to the conscious mind

Question 27

Give an example of a thought that had to be pushed away

Answer 27

The wish to kill somebody

Question 28

What is psychoanalysis investigating?

Answer 28

The mind and how you feel and what you think about your feelings

Question 29

How do psychoanalysis differ from psychiatry?

Answer 29

Psychiatry often involves drugs or medications whereas psychoanalysis involves talking to solve problems

Question 30

Is psychoanalysis effective ? Provide some evidence from Eysenck's findings.

Answer 30

NO! - Eysenck thought criminals were neurotic so psychoanalysis was unlikely to work for them - Eysenck found that only 44% of neurosis patients showed improvement VS 72% treated by hospitals and GPs

Question 31

Briefly outline the two problems with psychoanalysis

Answer 31

Cost - It is very costly and time consuming as a result never been used on a large scale for treating criminals Abuse - The analysis determines what is 'normal' or not. EG Freud thought that homosexuality was abnormal. This can give rise to abuse

Question 32

Operant learning and token economics According to the Operant Learning theory, how is criminal behaviour learned?

Answer 32

Reinforcements (rewards) and punishments

Question 33

What is a 'token economy'?

Answer 33

A behaviour modification programme used in some prisons

Question 34

Crime control Briefly explain how a 'token economy' works

Answer 34

- The institution draws up a list of desirable behaviours eg obeying the rules - When the offender behaves in the desired way, they earn a token - Tokens may be exchanged for rewards eg sweets, phone call - Through this selective reinforcement, good behaviour becomes more likely and undesirable behaviour becomes less likely

Question 35

Is the token economy effective?

Answer 35

To some extent as it: makes prisoners more manageable, some studies show an improvement in behaviour. However, good behaviour tends to stop once the offender leaves the prison, although offenders tend to return to crime more slowly

Question 36

Give an example of where this system was used too severely

Answer 36

In the US, food and drink were withheld and given as rewards. However, there was heavy opposition to this as many believe it should be a human right to have food and water, not a privilege.

Question 37

Aversion therapy and Eysenck's theory What is Aversion therapy used for?

Answer 37

Treating sex offenders

Question 38

According to Eysenck, why are criminals harder to condition?

Answer 38

Because they tend to be strongly extravert and neurotic which means they are more resistant to learning through punishments

Question 39

How does aversion therapy work?

Answer 39

Offenders are asked to think about about an unacceptable sexual fantasy until they are aroused. A strongly adverse stimulus is then administered, such as an electric shock or nausea-inducing drug. The procedure is repeated until the offender comes to associate the deviant arousal and the stimulus. The aim is to stop the thoughts and thus the offending behaviour

Question 40

Is aversion therapy effective?

Answer 40

Very limited success, usually only short term. Uses in 'curing' gay people has been criticised as human rights abuse

Question 41

Cognitive theories and CBT According to cognitive theories, what causes offending

Answer 41

Our thought processes

Question 42

What does Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) aim to do?

Answer 42

Change offender's thoughts and attitudes so as to change their behaviour

Question 43

CBT - Think first programme What is the Think first programme?

Answer 43

A programme who have one to one and group sessions for repeat offenders on probation

Question 44

What does the Think first programme aim to do?

Answer 44

It aims to enable offenders to control their thoughts and behaviour.

Question 45

What does the Think first programme teach?

Answer 45

Problem solving skills, consequential thinking, decision making and seeing things from other's point of view

Question 46

Is the Think first programme effective?

Answer 46

Those who completed the course are 30% less likely to be re-convicted than those who received an alternative community sentence. However, not everyone may complete the course

Question 47

CBT - Agression Replacement Training Who is the ART programme for?

Answer 47

Violent and aggressive offenders

Question 48

What does the ART programme involve?

Answer 48

- Interpersonal skills training - Moral reasoning training that challenges individuals attitudes by giving them moral dilemmas - Anger control techniques , dealing with emotions and providing offenders with alternative actions instead of violence

Question 49

Is the ART programme effective?

Answer 49

Lower re-conviction rates. However, some evaluations found that although skills improved, behaviour did not

Question 50

'What works' Are all CBT programmes equally successful or equally suitable

Answer 50

NO!

Question 51

What does the Home office 'what works' policy aim to ensure?

Answer 51

That CBT programmes actually reduce offending and so It only accredits programmes that meet their certain criteria

Question 52

What does the 'what works' policy criteria include?

Answer 52

- A clear plan and proven methods for altering offenders' behaviour - Careful matching of offenders to the right programme - Targeting the risk factors that lead to offending If a programme meets this criteria they can be accredited

Question 53

Sociological theories influencing theories - Merton and subcultural theories According to Merton, why do poor people commit crime?

Answer 53

Legitimate opportunities are blocked for poor people so they turn to illegal means of making money

Question 54

According to subcultural theories, what causes crime?

Answer 54

Blocked opportunities. Different subcultures cope with these blocked opportunities by becoming professional criminals, joining gangs or dropping out

Question 55

According to sociological theories, how could society's structure be made more equal?

Answer 55

- Policies to tackle poverty, better welfare benefits, wages and job security would reduce crime by giving everyone a more equal chance of achieving success by legal means - Equal opportunities in school would reduce failure rates for working-class students making them less likely to have status frustration and join delinquent subcultures - Education in prison, half of UK prisoners reading level of 11 year old. Better education in prisons would help inmates gain skills to get a good job and good straight

Question 56

Research improving benefit How much money does Finland give its citizens monthly?

Answer 56

$660

Question 57

Who receives these benefits?

Answer 57

Only un-employed people

Question 58

What are the problems with these benefits?

Answer 58

Someone has to pay for them

Question 59

Labelling theory What does the Labelling theory argue is the cause of crime?

Answer 59

Result of self-fulfilling prophecy

Question 60

What does labelling someone as a criminal do?

Answer 60

It risks them living up to their label and committing further, more serious crimes

Question 61

Briefly describe the several crime control policies influenced by Labelling theory

Answer 61

Decriminalisation - decriminalising minor offences such as possession of cannabis would mean fewer young people are labelled as criminal. A criminal record can prevent them from getting a job and lead to secondary deviance (further offending) Diversion policies - aims to keep an offender out of the justice system so as to avoid labelling them as criminals. Some diversion policies are informal like when police use their discretion not to charge someone. Others are formal, such as requiring an officer to attend a anger management programme to avoid prosecution Reintegrative shaming - Braithwaite identifies two types of 'shaming' of labelling : - Disintegrative shaming, where both the crime and the criminal are labelled as bad and the offender is excluded from society. This can push them into further crime - Reintegrative shaming, labels the act not the actor, as if to say,' he has done a bad thing', rather than 'he is a bad person'. It avoids stigmatising the offender as evil, while still encouraging them to repent and encouraging others to admit them back into society

Question 62

How effective are the labelling theory policies?

Answer 62

Evidence shows crime control policies based on labelling theory can deal successfully with minor offences and young offenders. By avoiding labelling people as criminals and keeping them out of the justice system, they avoid pushing people into a deviant career

Question 63

Right realism - Situational crime prevention (SCP) How do SCP policies aim to reduce crime?

Answer 63

By reducing the opportunities for crime by increasing the risks or difficulties of committing the crime and reducing the rewards

Question 64

What theory is Situational crime prevention based on?

Answer 64

The rational choice theory

Question 65

Give three examples of 'target hardening' measures?

Answer 65

Locking cars, employing security guards and re-shaping the environment to 'design crime out' of an area

Question 66

Is SCP effective?

Answer 66

Not really! It mainly causes displacement, if criminals are rational actors, when they find a target too hard to crack, they will simply look for a softer one. This could result in more vunerable targets being victimised more because other targets have been hardened

Question 67

Right realism - Environmental crime prevention According to Wilson and Kelling's 'broken windows theory', what is the cause of crime?

Answer 67

A disorderly neighbourhood sends out the message that nobody cares. This attracts offenders, who calculate that their activities will not be punished

Question 68

Briefly describe the two elements of Wilson and Kelling's proposed policy

Answer 68

- An environmental improvement strategy, all signs of disorder must be tackled promptly - A Zero tolerance policing strategy (ZTP) - zero-tolerance approach toward all crime, even minor crimes

Question 69

Briefly outline four reasons why ZTP may not be effective

Answer 69

- Crime fell after ZTP was introduced in New York in the 1990's, but could have been due to other factors. In other us cities crime fell even when ZTP hadn't been adopted - ZTP can lead to targeting of ethnic minorities due to police racism - Males and Macallair found that ZTP curfews can increase juvenile crime: by removing law-abiding youths off the streets, they leave the streets emptier and favourable to crime - ZTP and SCP fail to tackle structural causes of crime such as inequality. They focus on low level street crime, ignoring crimes of the powerful - White collar and state crimes

Question 70

Right realism - Penal population and imprisonment According to right realists, why would tougher penalties deter criminals?

Answer 70

More risks over reward would deter criminals as right realists believe criminals use rational choice before committing crime

Question 71

Briefly outline two functions of prison according to right realists

Answer 71

Incapacitation - Criminals become incapable of harming the public, jail takes them 'out of circulation' Deterrence - Criminals think twice before offending when they see tough punishments handed out

Question 72

What is meant by 'penal populism'?

Answer 72

Politicians believed tough penalties were popular with the public so used harsher penalties for crime

Question 73

Briefly outline the three changes to sentencing introduced by the Conservative government in the 1997 Crime Act

Answer 73

- Automatic life sentences for a second serious sexual or violent offence - A minimum of 7 years for a third Class A drug trafficking conviction - Minimum of 3 years for a third domestic burglary conviction

Question 74

What policies did Tony Blair's government introduce in 1997?

Answer 74

ASBO's and Curfews

Question 75

What has been the impact of penal populism?

Answer 75

35,000 more prisoners from 1993 to 2021

Question 76

What do the statistics from 2018 show about the problems of penal populism?

Answer 76

Increase in suicides, homicides, self harm incidents and assaults

Question 77

Is prison effective? Briefly evaluate how effective prison is in relation to the following; Incapacitation, rehabilitation, recidivism and deterrence

Answer 77

Incapacitation - Offenders cannot commit crimes against the public while they are in jail however they can commit crimes on fellow inmates and staff Rehabilitation - One function of prison is to rehabilitate offenders but overcrowding and budget cuts means many prisoners lack access to education, skills training and treatment which would help them become law-abiding citizens Recidivism - Ineffective in preventing reoffending. 48% of adults are re-convicted within a year of their release Deterrence - Right realists argue that the risk of jail deters would-be criminals who make rational choices about offending. However, studies show that risk of imprisonment doesn't deter offenders enough to affect crime rates

Question 78

Left realists According to left realists, what is the root cause of crime?

Answer 78

The unequal and unfair structure of society

Question 79

Why do left realists suggest that policies to reduce inequality will reduce crime?

Answer 79

Left realists believe that relative deprivation causes crime and if they can resolve the unequal structure of society and the subsequent relative deprivation crime will be reduced

Question 80

Why do left realists suggest that the police are losing public support?

Answer 80

They are widely distrusted and as a result their information dries up and so they have to rely on 'military policing' such as stop and search which creates further loss of co-operation, meaning they cannot tackle crime effectively

Question 81

How can the police win back public support?

Answer 81

They must involve local communities in deciding their priorities. They must focus on crimes that victimise the disadvantaged such as domestic abuse and hate crimes rather than offences such as possession of soft drugs

Question 82

Briefly outline three successes there have been for left realist policing policies

Answer 82

- Many forces now make cannabis possession a low priority crime - Domestic violence and hate crimes are now a high priority - Neighbourhood policing and police community support officers (PCSO's) have been introduced to build better relationships with communities

Question 83

What Is meant by a 'multi-agency approach'?

Answer 83

Left realists argue that crime control must involve many other agencies from the police : schools, youth services, housing departments, social services and the NHS

Question 84

Give an example of a multi-agency approach by a campaign?

Answer 84

No Knives Better Lives. This campaign involves a wide range of agencies, including schools, local councils, youth services and the police

Question 85

Briefly describe one policy advocated by left realists that the new Labour governments introduced

Answer 85

'Tough on crime, tough on the causes of crime'. For example, Labour invested in the improvement to deprived neighbourhoods - an example of being tough on the causes of crime

Question 86

Surveillance theories Briefly explain how CCTV can be seen as a modern form of the Panopticon

Answer 86

Its a surveillance system in which prison guards can observe inmates without the prisoners knowing whether they were being watched

Question 87

According to Gill and Loveday, why is CCTV ineffective?

Answer 87

Very few criminals are put off by CCTV

Question 88

Give an example of when CCTV has been effective?

Answer 88

Identification of David Copeland, terrorist convicted of a nail-bombing campaign

Question 89

According to critics, what is CCTV's real function?

Answer 89

To reassure the public, even though it makes little difference to their security

Question 90

What evidence is there that CCTV may enable stereotyping to occur?

Answer 90

Norris and Armstrong found that CCTV operators using racial stereotypes, singling out black youths for surveillance

Question 91

What is meant by 'surveillance creep'?

Answer 91

Where technology introduced for one purpose gets extended to another. Automatic Number Plate Recognition was introduced in response to an IRA bombing campaign in 1990-1993. They failed to identify a single bomber so instead they used the cameras to identify untaxed vehicles

Question 92

Profilling What does profiling involve?

Answer 92

Using data to draw up a statistical picture of likely offenders, often using official crime statistics to do so. Individuals can be profiled according to special characteristics to decide what degree of risk they pose

Question 93

Briefly explain how profiling Is used by airport security

Answer 93

Airport security screening checks are based on offenders 'risk factors' . Using information gathered about passengers (sex, age), they can be given a risk score and anyone scoring above a certain level can be stopped, questioned and searched etc

Question 94

Briefly explain why profiling can be discriminatory

Answer 94

A profile based on official crime statistics may show certain groups as more likely to offend eg black youths

Question 95

Briefly outline how profiling can create a self-fulfilling prophecy

Answer 95

The police act on the profile by stopping black youths more than any other groups. Any black youths who are actually offending are more likely to be caught than offenders from other groups. Black youths thus continue to be over-represented in the statistics and this will seem to confirm their profile. The police will continue to target black youths - a vicious circle