Unit 2: Doing Social Psychology Research

Question 1

Why is learning about research methods in social psychology useful?

Answer 1

1) It better allows for distinguishing between evidence-based findings and intuitive, commonsense notions about social psychology questions.
2) Learning about research methods improves reasoning and critical thinking skills and makes people more sophisticated consumers of information. This improves one’s ability to critically evaluate new information (e.g., from a news article or from social media) and separate fact from fiction.

Question 2

Describe the steps in doing research in social psychology.

Answer 2

1. Come up with ideas
   1a) Asking questions
   1b) Searching the literature
   1c) Generate a research question and/or hypothesis
2. Refine ideas
3. Test hypotheses
4. Interpret results
5. Disseminate results/knowledge translation

Question 3

Outline several ways for generating research ideas.

Answer 3

1. Making an observation in daily life and generating a hypothesis to test
2. Extending research that has already been conducted
3. Addressing gaps in the literature.

Question 4

What is a hypothesis?

Answer 4

A hypothesis is a prediction that is explicit, empirically testable and clearly states the conditions under which a specific event is expected to occur. Hypotheses are typically informed by observation, existing theory, or previous research findings.

Question 5

What is a theory?

Answer 5

A theory is an organized set of principles that explain an observed phenomenon. Theories are considered a more advanced step in the research process and are typically developed using the data generated from hypothesis testing. The best theories encompass all relevant information about the phenomenon and help people better understand it.

Question 6

What are the criteria used to evaluate a theory?

Answer 6

1. Simplicity
2. Comprehensiveness
3. Generativity (i.e. the ability to generate new hypotheses).

Question 7

What is the purpose of basic research?

Answer 7

The purpose of basic research is to increase understanding of human behaviour, typically by testing a specific hypothesis from a specific theory.

Question 8

What is the purpose of applied research?

Answer 8

Applied research uses theories or methods to better understand naturally occurring events and solve social problems.

Question 9

Define conceptual variable.

Answer 9

Conceptual variables are abstract ideas like prejudice or aggression that cannot be objectively seen or measured. In order to test hypotheses using conceptual variables, they need to be operationally defined.

Question 10

Define operational definition.

Answer 10

An operational definition is a specific procedure for manipulating or measuring a conceptual variable that transforms it from abstract to specific.

Question 11

Summarize the advantages of using self-reports to measure variables.

Answer 11

Self-report involves participants providing information about their subjective experiences. It allows researchers to study individuals’ beliefs and perceptions which cannot be directly observed.

Question 12

Summarize the disadvantages of using self-reports to measure variables.

Answer 12

Self-reports may not be accurate (e.g., due to the self-serving bias, how questions are asked, the context in which they are asked, recall bias).

Question 13

Summarize the advantages of using observations to measure variables.

Answer 13

Observations involve researchers watching individuals’ behaviour. An advantage is that observation is not subject to errors in recall or distorted self-perceptions that can contribute to inaccuracies in self-report.

Question 14

Summarize the disadvantages of using observations to measure variables.

Answer 14

Self-serving bias may still emerge as participants may behave differently when being observed by researchers. Observation is resource intensive as observers (researchers) must be trained, complete the observation, assess interrater reliability, and resolve discrepancies in accordance with the study protocol.

Question 15

Define construct validity.

Answer 15

Construct validity refers to how well the measures in a study actually measure the conceptual variable they are intended to measure. It also refers to how well the manipulations in an experiment manipulate the conceptual variables they are designed to manipulate.

Question 16

Why is it necessary to establish construct validity in research?

Answer 16

It is important for researchers to establish construct validity to demonstrate that they have appropriately captured the variable of interest. Inferences about results related to the construct being studied should not be drawn if the measures do not adequately measure the conceptual variable (construct) of interest.

Question 17

Define interrater reliability.

Answer 17

Interrater reliability refers to the level of agreement among one or more observers of the same behaviour.

Question 18

Why is it necessary to have interrater reliability in the measurement of variables?

Answer 18

Because sometimes observations can be elaborate and have room for observer error and/or subjectivity. When different observers are in agreement about what has been observed, the data can be trusted.

Question 19

What is the purpose of descriptive research?

Answer 19

The purpose of descriptive research is to describe people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviours.

Question 20

What are the methods used to conduct descriptive research.

Answer 20

The methods used are observation, archival studies, and surveys.

Question 21

What are observational studies?

Answer 21

Observational studies involve the observation of individuals to address social psychological questions by researchers trained to be systematic and unbiased in their observations.

Question 22

What are archival studies?

Answer 22

Archival studies involve the examination of existing records of past events and behaviours (e.g., newspaper articles, medical records).

Question 23

What are surveys?

Answer 23

Surveys involve asking people questions about their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours.

Question 24

What are the advantages of observational studies?

Answer 24

It is not subject to errors in recall or distorted self-perceptions that can contribute to inaccuracies in self-report.

Question 25

What are the disadvantages of observational studies?

Answer 25

Self-serving bias may emerge as participants may behave differently when being observed by researchers.

Question 26

What are the advantages of archival studies?

Answer 26

The certainty researchers have that they have not influenced individuals’ behaviour by their presence because they are observing the behaviour secondhand.

Question 27

What are the disadvantages of archival studies?

Answer 27

1. Records available could contain data that may not have been collected (or recorded) in a systematic way
2. Records may have insufficient detail
3. Records may be incomplete.

Question 28

What are the advantages of surveys?

Answer 28

1. They allow researchers to examine variables that may otherwise be impossible or unethical to observe or manipulate
2. Surveys are easy to administer and can be conducted in person, over the phone, by mail, or through the internet.

Question 29

What are the disadvantages of surveys studies?

Answer 29

The possibility of sampling bias (the subset of individuals who complete the survey are not representative of the population they came from) and collection of data that is not generalizable to the population the researcher is interested in learning more about.

Question 30

Define random sampling.

Answer 30

Random sampling is a method of choosing individuals to participate in a research study so that everyone in the population has an equal chance of being selected to be in the study.

Question 31

What is it important to use random sampling in designing surveys?

Answer 31

Because the goal of administering a survey is typically to generalize the results from the sample of participants back to the population as a whole. If the study participants are not representative of the population they came from, the results will not be reflective of the population as a whole and will result in inaccurate conclusions and/or predictions about the population of interest.

Question 32

What is the purpose of correlational research?

Answer 32

The purpose of correlational research is to measure the relationship between different variables. The relationship between variables tells researchers how well one variable can be used to predict another variable. Experimental manipulation is not used in correlational studies; variables are only measured and not manipulated.

Question 33

What is a correlation coefficient?

Answer 33

The correlation coefficient (r) is the statistic used to measure the strength and direction of the relationship between variables. The correlation coefficient can range from -1.0 to +1.0.

Question 34

What does correlation is not causation mean?

Answer 34

Correlation is not causation means that correlation does not demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship. When there is evidence of a significant correlation, there could be one of three things happening: 1) variable A causes variable B, 2) variable B causes variable A, or 3) variable C causes variable A and B.

Question 35

What is the purpose of experimental research?

Answer 35

The purpose of experimental research is to examine cause-and-effect relationships between variables.

Question 36

List the characteristics of an experiment.

Answer 36

1. The researcher has control over manipulating the variable of interest while controlling other parts of the experimental procedures
2. Participants are randomly assigned to the different experimental conditions and, on average, participants assigned to one condition are no different from those assigned to other conditions

Question 37

What is random sampling?

Answer 37

Random sampling refers to how participants are selected from the population of interest to participate in a research study. This allows for generalization of study results from the sample back to the population of interest.

Question 38

What is random assignment?

Answer 38

Random assignment refers to the assignment of study participants to the experimental conditions such that they all have an equal chance of being in any of the conditions. It reduces the likelihood that the participants in each condition, at the group level, do not significantly differ from the other groups on the basis of existing baseline characteristics.

Question 39

What are field experiments?

Answer 39

Field experiments are conducted in real-world settings where people tend people act more naturally compared to laboratory settings.

Question 40

What are laboratory experiments?

Answer 40

Laboratory experiments are conducted in controlled settings, typically at a university.

Question 41

What is an independent variable?

Answer 41

Independent variables are the variables that researchers manipulate in the experiment.

Question 42

What is a dependent variable?

Answer 42

Dependent variables are the variables examined that manipulation of the independent variable is expected to have an effect on.

Question 43

What is a subject variable?

Answer 43

Subject variables are variables that are neither truly independent or dependent. They characterize pre-existing differences among participants in an experiment, for example, sex.

Question 44

Define internal validity.

Answer 44

Internal validity refers to the degree to which there can be reasonable certainty that the independent variable in an experiment caused the effects obtained on the dependent variable(s). Internal validity can be strengthened by using random assignment, experimenter control (i.e. laboratory studies have more internal validity than field studies), control groups, and double-blind randomized controlled trials.

Question 45

Define external validity.

Answer 45

External validity refers to the degree to which there can be reasonable confidence that the results of a study generalize to other people in other situations. Random sampling helps to increase external validity. Since field experiments are conducted in the real-life environments that the researchers are generalizing the results back to, they have greater external validity than carefully controlled laboratory experiments.

Question 46

What is a meta-analysis?

Answer 46

A meta-analysis is a type of study in which statistical procedures are used to examine relevant research that has already been conducted and reported in different places and by different researchers to measure precisely how strong and reliable particular effects are.

Question 47

What is deception?

Answer 47

Deception involves providing participants with false information about experimental procedures in order to increase experimental realism and manufacturer situations that would be otherwise difficult to observe.

Question 48

What are confederates?

Answer 48

Confederates are accomplices of the experimenter who act as if they are a participant in the experiment while interacting with the real participants.

Question 49

Why is ethics an important issue in social psychological research?

Answer 49

Researchers have a moral and legal responsibility to abide by ethical principles. It is a particularly important issue in social psychological research because historically several studies have sparked debates about whether they went beyond the boundaries of ethical acceptability, i.e. by causing harm (e.g. Milgram)

Question 50

Describe measures that researchers in social psychology must take to protect the welfare of human participants in their research.

Answer 50

1. Research Ethics Boards
2. Adhere to the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists
3. Obtain informed consent
4. Use debriefing after a subject participates in an experiment

Question 51

What are the competing arguments for and against science as value-free?

Answer 51

AGAINST: science is a human enterprise and scientists’ personal values and professional rewards affect their choices of what to study and how to study it.

FOR: scientists use the scientific method which has been developed to maximize objectivity.