Unit 2 - Metabolism & Survival Flashcards
(188 cards)
1
Q
what is metabolism
A
all of the chemical reactions that take place inside all living cells
2
Q
what two types of organisms must control their metabolism in order to survive
A
unicellular & multicellular
3
Q
name four metabolic reactions
A
- respiration
- protein synthesis
- photosynthesis
- starch synthesis
4
Q
describe metabolic pathways
A
a series of chemical reactions which take place within a cell, involving several enzymes
5
Q
what will the products of one chemical reaction in a metabolic pathway become in the next one
A
the substrate
6
Q
metabolic pathway diagram… (glycolysis)
A
glucose
|
enzyme a
|
v
glycogen<== intermediate 1 ==> starch
(mammals) N (plants)
|
enzyme b
|
N
intermediate 2
|
enzyme c
|
v
intermediate 3
|
many enzyme controlled steps
|
v
pyruvate
7
Q
what three things can metabolic pathways have?
A
- reversible steps
- irreversible steps
- alternative routes
8
Q
alternative route diagram…
A
glucose————————————->
| |
enzyme a |
| alternative route
v |
intermediate 1 v
N sorbital
| |
enzyme b several enzyme
| controlled steps
N |
intermediate 2 |
| |
enzyme c |
| |
v |
intermediate 3 |
|——————————————v
many enzyme controlled steps
|
v
pyruvate
9
Q
fermentation in mammals and fermentation in yeast equation
A
mammals:
pyruvate <=========>lactate
yeast:
pyruvate ===> CO2 + ethanol
10
Q
name and define the two types of metabolic pathways
A
- catabolic:
involve breaking down (degrading) large
molecules into smaller ones - this
releases energy - anabolic:
involve building up (synthesising) large
molecules from smaller ones - this
requires energy
11
Q
give an example of each type of metabolic pathway (catabolic & anabolic)
A
catabolic:
respiration
(glucose + oxygen ==> CO2 + water)
anabolic:
protein synthesis
(amino acids ==> protein)
12
Q
name two structures with membranes
A
- chloroplast
- mitochondria
13
Q
what does a chloroplast include inside it
A
inner membrane, granum, stroma, thylakoids, outer membrane
14
Q
what does a mitochondria include inside it
A
cristae, outer membrane, central matrix, inner membrane
15
Q
name three ways materials can pass through the membrane
A
- diffusion
- osmosis
- active transport (pump mechanism)
16
Q
name three functions of proteins in the plasma membrane
A
- protein pores (diffusion)
- pumps (active transport)
- enzymes (ATP synthase)
17
Q
where are the proteins in the plasma membrane embedded
A
in the phospholipid membranes
18
Q
what are some of the proteins embedded in the cell membrane and what do they do
A
enzymes which catalyse the steps in metabolic pathways
19
Q
what are metabolic pathways controlled by
A
the presence or absence of particular enzymes
20
Q
give three reasons why are enzymes essential to metabolic pathways
A
- they speed up chemical reactions
- they remain unchanged after the
reaction so can be used again - they lower the activation energy
required to carry out the reaction
21
Q
what is induced fit
A
when the active site changes shape to better fit the substrate after the substrate binds
22
Q
what are the three steps to induced fit during an enzyme catalysed reaction
A
- reactants bind to the active site in a
specific orientation, forming an enzyme-
substrate complex - interactions between enzyme and
substrate lower the activation energy
required - products have a lower affinity for the
active site and are released. enzyme is
unchanged after reaction
23
Q
do substrate molecules/products have a low or high affinity for the active site and what does this result in
A
substrate molecule(s) have a high affinity (attraction) for the active site so will bind readily.
products have a low affinity, allowing them to leave the active site, free to catalyse another reaction.
24
Q
what three things is enzyme action affected by (expand on no. 3)
A
- temperature
- pH
- substrate concentration - if the substrate conc. is low, the rate of reaction is low. this improves as the substrate conc. increases. as substrate conc. increases further, the rate of reaction remains constant.
25
explain the effect of increasing substrate concentration on enzyme activity (at low concentration…)
at low substrate conc., many of the active sites on enzymes are not occupied, therefore there is a low rate of reaction. as substrate conc. increases, more enzymes are able to catalyse reactions so there is an increase in the rate of reaction. as substrate conc. increases further there is a plateau as all of the active sites on enzymes are occupied by substrates
26
what does the presence of a substrate or the removal of a product do to a sequence of reactions in enzyme action
drive a sequence of reactions in a particular direction
27
define inhibitors
substances which can slow down the rate of an enzyme
28
state the two main types of inhibitors
1. competitive
2. non-competitive
29
where do competitive inhibitors bind to on an enzyme
they have a similar shape to the substrate so they also fit the enzyme's active site and bind there
30
what happens when a competitive inhibitor joins the enzyme
it prevents the substrate binding, therefore reducing the number of substrate molecules being used by the enzyme
31
how is the effect of a competitive inhibitor reversed
by increasing the substrate concentration. with more substrate molecules present, there is a higher chance that the active site will be occupied by a substrate molecule rather than the inhibitor.
32
when is the maximum rate of reaction achieved during increasing substrate concentration
when the inhibitor is out-competed by the substrate
33
where do non-competitive inhibitors bind to on the enzyme and what does this result in
they don't interfere with the active site and instead bind to another part of the enzyme. this results in the shape of the enzyme being altered so the active site's shape is also altered. the substrate can now no longer fit the enzyme's active site and therefore the reaction cannot take place
34
can the effect of a non-competitive inhibitor be reversed by increasing substrate concentration?
no
35
give examples of non-competitive inhibitors
heavy metals like lead and silver
36
what is end product feedback inhibition
another way a metabolic pathway can be regulated
37
how does end product feedback inhibition work
as the conc. of the end product builds up to a critical level, some of the product binds to an earlier enzyme in the pathway and blocks this enzyme's action, preventing further (unnecessary) synthesis of the end product
38
what three things each play a part in controlling metabolic pathways
1. competitive inhibition
2. non-competitive inhibition
3. feedback inhibition
39
what is ATP used for and give three examples of these things
to transfer energy to cellular processes which require energy
1. muscle contractions
2. synthesis reactions
3. active transport
40
what is ATP made up of
one adenosine and three inorganic phosphate groups (Pi)
41
define phosphorylation
addition of phosphate group
42
what two reactions does ATP act as a link between
energy-releasing reactions and energy-consuming reactions
43
what is glycolysis and where does it occur
it is the first stage of aerobic respiration and it occurs in the cytoplasm
44
does glycolysis require oxygen
no
45
what happens during glycolysis
glucose (a 6 carbon molecule) is broken down into 2 molecules of pyruvate (a 3 carbon molecule) in a series of enzyme controlled reactions.
46
what is ATP required for in glycolysis
the phosphorylation of glucose and intermediates during the series of reactions
47
how many molecules of ATP is generated during glycolysis and what is the process to get to that conclusion
there is an investment of 2 ATP molecules in the energy investment phase and 4 ATP molecules are generated during the energy pay off stage. resulting in a net gain of 2 ATP
48
what bond are the carbons held together by in a 6C glucose molecule
hydrogen bonds
49
what happens when the glucose molecule is split during glycolysis
hydrogen ions and electrons are released and must bind to a carrier
50
what is the hydrogen carrier during glycolysis
NAD which becomes NADH when carrying hydrogen ions
51
what is the name of the enzyme that removes hydrogen ions and electrons from the glucose during glycolysis
dehydrogenase
52
what are the hydrogen ions and electrons temporarily bound to during glycolysis
a coenzyme (NAD) which acts as a hydrogen acceptor and carrier
53
where does NAD carry the hydrogen ions and electrons to during glycolysis
to the Electron Transport Chain on the inner membrane of the mitochondria to be used later
54
where are the two sites that aerobic respiration occurs at and the function of these places
1. matrix of the mitochondria- fluid filled,
containing enzymes (citric acid
cycle)
2. cristae of the mitochondria-folds,
increasing surface area (electron
transport chain)
55
what happens after glycolysis during aerobic respiration
the citric acid cycle
56
what happens after glycolysis at the start of the citric acid cycle and what are the steps during the citric acid cycle
1. pyruvate diffuses into the matrix where
it loses a carbon atom to become acetyl
2. the carbon is removed as carbon
dioxide and is released from the cell
3. acetyl group then joins with a molecule
called 'co-enzyme A' , forming acetyl co-
enzyme A. the co-enzyme transports the
acetyle group to the citric acid cycle
4. acetyl combines with oxaloacetate to
form citrate. this is followed by several
enzyme controlled steps. this cycle will
eventually lead to the regeneration of
oxaloacetate
5. ATP is generated (1 molecule per
pyruvate)
(CO2 is released throughout the cycle)
6. H ions and electrons are removed by
dehydrogenase enzymes. these are
accepted by NAD to form NADH
7. the H ions and high energy electrons are
passed to the electron transport chain
on the inner mitochondrial membrane
57
what is the electron transport chain (2 things)
the final stage of the respiration pathway and a collection of proteins on the inner mitochondrial membrane (cristae)
58
at which stage of respiration is the most ATP produced
the electron transport chain
59
what is the cristae made of
proteins and phospholipids (like any membrane)
60
what are the steps to the electron transport chain
1. the NADH from glycolysis and citric acid
cycle release the electrons and pass
them to the electron transport chain
2. the electron transport chain is a series
of carrier proteins attached to the inner
mitochondrial membrane
3. electrons are passed along the electron
transport chain, releasing energy
4. this energy is used to pump H+ across
the inner mitochondrial membrane,
creating a higher concentration outside
the matrix
5. H+ then flow back in across the
membrane via molecules of ATP
synthase. This enzyme converts ADP + Pi
into ATP
6. the majority of the ATP produced during
cellular respiration is generated this way
7. oxygen is the final hydrogen acceptor
and combines with the electrons and
hydrogen ions that reach the end of the
chain to make water
61
how many molecules of ATP is generated in each of the following
1. glycolysis
2. citric acid cycle
3. electron transport chain
1. 2
2. 2
3. 34
62
when does fermentation occur
in the absence of oxygen
63
fermentation in plants & yeast process...
glucose -------------
| } net gain of 2 ATP
2x pyruvate -------- produced (glycolysis)
|
ethanol + CO2
64
fermentation in animals process...
same as plants & yeast (glycolysis) but then 2x pyruvate goes to lactate and that step is reversible where O2 debt builds up from pyruvate to lactate but is then repaid going back the way
65
why is fermentation in animals reversible
because the oxygen debt can be repaid and lactate will convert back into pyruvate
66
how many ATP molecules are produced in aerobic respiration (per mol. of glucose)
38 ATP per molecule of glucose
67
how many ATP molecules are produced in fermentation (anaerobic respiration)
2 ATP (during glycolysis) from one molecule of glucose
68
define metabolic rate
the quantity of energy consumed per unit of time
69
what can metabolic rate be measured as (3 things)
1. energy production (heat) per unit of
time
2. oxygen consumption per unit of time
3. CO2 production per unit of time
70
what can a calorimeter be used to measure and what is recorded on it
used to measure metabolic rate and energy production (heat) per unit of time is recorded
71
what is a suitable control for a calorimeter experiment
replace the woodlice (organism) with glass beads (inert object)
72
what can a respirometer be used to measure and what is detected by it
used to measure metabolic rate and probes can be used to detect changes in CO2 concentration and O2 concentration
73
what happens when an organism's metabolic rate increases to meet increasing demand for energy and what does this mean
its rate of aerobic respiration and oxygen intake increase. this means that organisms with high metabolic rates need efficient transport systems to deliver large supplies of oxygen to respiring cells
74
what does the heart consist of in the single circulatory system
one atrium and one ventricle
75
what happens in the single circulatory system and give an example of an organism which has one
blood passes through a two chambered heart once for each complete circuit of the body. e.g. fish
76
what does the heart consist of in the incomplete double circulatory system and what does this cause
only one ventricle and two atria. this causes some oxygenated blood (from the lungs) to be mixed with deoxygenated blood (from the body)
77
give an example of organisms with an incomplete double circulatory system
amphibians and reptiles
78
what does the heart consist of in the double circulatory system
two atria and two ventricles which are separated
79
is there mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the double circulatory system
no, meaning the oxygenated blood can be pumped out at a higher pressure
80
how do complete double circulatory systems enable a higher metabolic rate to be maintained
it enables more efficient oxygen delivery to cells
81
give an example of an organism with a complete double circulatory system
humans
82
name the three external abiotic factors that can affect an organism
1. temperature
2. salinity
3. pH
83
define a conformer
an organism whose internal environment is dependant upon the external environment
84
what is the advantage and the disadvantage of conformers
advantage:
they do not require energy to keep their inner state relatively stable (low metabolic costs)
disadvantage:
they may have a narrower range of ecological niches unless they can tolerate (adapt) or resist variation in their external environment
85
name a behavioural response some conformers use to slightly control their internal environment
lizards bask in the sun to raise their body temperature
86
define a regulator
organisms that use metabolism to maintain a steady internal environment despite changes in the external environment
87
what is the advantage and the disadvantage of regulators
disadvantage:
this requires high energy expenditure
advantage:
offers a wide range of ecological niches
88
what is homeostasis
our 'internal environment' must be maintained i.e. kept in a constant state if we are to survive
89
how is homeostasis possible
negative feedback control
90
what is negative feedback control
the process by which a change in a factor (e.g. body temperature) triggers a mechanism which results in that factor returning to its normal level (norm or set point)
91
what can thermoregulators do
maintain their body temperature
92
what is essential for thermoregulators so they have a higher metabolic rate
energy for heat
93
what is another word for thermoregulators
endotherms
94
what is important for endotherms to do and what happens if they do not do this
regulate their body temperature to around 35-45 degrees C, the optimum temperature for most enzymes. if they do not do this then metabolic pathways will not function at their best
95
what does regulating temperature in endotherms ensure
high diffusion rates to meet the metabolic needs of tissues
96
what is the hypothalamus
the part of the brain responsible for the monitoring of body temperature
97
what does the hypothalamus receive, what does this detect and what can it then respond by
receives nerve impulses (messages) from thermo-receptors in the skin which detect changes in blood-temperature. it can then respond by sending nerve impulses to the necessary effectors which return the temperature of the body to its normal level (via negative feedback)
98
which organ plays an important role in regards to regulation of body temperature
the skin
99
how does the skin bring the body temperature back to normal levels
information is communicated by electrical impulses through nerves to the effectors (e.g. skin), which bring about corrective responses to return temperature to normal
100
what three things happen during overheating
1. vasodilation
2. sweating increases
3. metabolic rate decreases
101
what happens during vasodilation during overheating
arterioles near the skin surface dilate (become wider), this causes an increase in blood flow to the surface close to the skin and heat is lost from the blood via radiation
102
what happens when sweating increases during overheating
heat from the skin causes water (sweat) to evaporate, cooling the skin
103
what happens when metabolic rate decreases during overheating
reduces the heat being produced in the body
104
what four things happen during overcooling
1. vasoconstriction
2. erector muscles contract
3. metabolic rate increases
4. shivering
105
what happens in vasoconstriction during overcooling
arterioles near the skin surface constrict (become narrower), this decreases the blood flow to the surface close to the skin and little heat is lost via radiation
106
what happens when erector muscles contract during overcooling
this raises the hairs on the skin surface and a layer of warm air is trapped on the surface of the skin and acts as an insulator. goosebumps also occur
107
what happens when metabolic rate increases during overcooling
heat is generated during metabolic
107
what happens when metabolic rate increases during overcooling
heat is generated during metabolic reactions
108
what happens during shivering during overcooling
involuntary twitching of muscles generates heat
109
By which two ways can animals tolerate adverse conditions, give an example of each
1. Surviving them through dormancy
2. Avoiding them through migration
110
Why would animals have to go through dormancy
When the cost of continued normal metabolic rate would be too high
111
What four things decrease for an organism when it goes through dormancy
1. Metabolic rate
2. Heart rate
3. Breathing rate
4. Body temperature
112
What can dormancy either be
Predictive or consequential
113
When does predictive dormancy occur
Before the onset of adverse conditions
114
when does consequential dormancy occur
After the onset of adverse conditions
115
Which three forms can dormancy take
1. Hibernation
2. Aestivation
3. Daily torpor
116
Describe hibernation
A form of dormancy in some animals (usually mammals) which allows them to survive through the winter/low temperatures
117
Describe aestivation
A form of dormancy in some animals which allows them to survive through periods of high temperature and/or drought
118
Describe daily torpor
A time of dormancy within a 24 hour period, seen in animals with a high metabolic rate (e.g. birds and small mammals). The animals’ heart rate, breathing rate and body temperature also decrease
119
Give examples of animals that undertake the following;
1. Hibernation
2. Aestivation
3. Daily torpor
1. Hibernation- door mouse, hedgehog, grizzly bear
2. Aestivation- crocodile, lungfish
3. Daily torpor- humming bird
120
Define migration
The seasonal Movement of members of the same species from one region to another
121
What is energy used for during migration
To relocate to a more suitable environment
122
What two behaviours can migration either be
Innate or learned
123
Define innate behaviour
Behaviour that is inherited and therefore inflexible. It is part of the genetics of the organism
124
Define learned behaviour
Behaviour that begins after birth and is gained from experiences. It is flexible and based on trial and error
125
give an example of innate influences playing a primary role in migration
birds migrating due to an external stimulus change such as change in day length
126
Which role do learned influences play in migration (primary or secondary)
Secondary
127
What was the cross fostering experiment
Eggs from migratory and non-migratory birds were swapped
128
What was discovered about innate and learned behaviour and the roles they take during the cross-fostering experiment
The migratory bird still migrated-innate behaviour and the non-migratory bird migrated with its new family-learned behaviour
129
How do displacement experiments show that innate and learned behaviours are involved in migration
Migratory birds moved to a different location, birds still able to migrate to original migration location
130
What four reasons do scientists study migration for
To find out:
1. When animals migrate
2. Where they are over winter
3. If they return to original summer territory
4. How long they live for
131
What four specialist techniques can be used for tracking during long distance migration
1. Leg rings
2. Satellite tracking
3. Togging
4. Painting
132
Describe how leg rings work when tracking long distance migration
Bands can be placed on the leg of the organism (e.g. birds). Bands have a specific ID number on them which can be logged each time an individual is captured. OR, different combinations of coloured bands can be used which are easily identified without recapture
133
Describe how satellite tracking works when tracking long distance migration
A tracker is attached to the animal and GPS technology is used to track them. No recapturing is needed, data is precise but technology is very expensive
134
What are the three domains of living things
1. Bacteria
2. Archaea
3. Eukaryote
135
What percentage of microbes are bacteria
Around 50%
136
Which domains of life do microorganisms belong to
All three
137
How can humans make use of microorganisms in industry and for research
Microorganisms use a wide variety of substrates for metabolism and produce a range of products for their metabolic pathways
138
Why are microorganisms widely used in research and industry (give 3 reasons)
1. They are easy to culture
2. They reproduce and grow quickly
3. Their metabolism can be controlled and manipulated relatively easily
139
Name three complex molecules that microorganisms produce and need
1. Amino acids
2. Vitamins
3. Fatty acids
140
What do some microorganisms require in order to obtain all the raw materials they need
Them to be supplied in the growth media
141
What is one of the ingredients that complex growth media contain
Beef extract
142
What two things does growth media require
1. Raw materials for making molecules
2. An energy source
143
What two places can an energy source for growth media either be derived from
Chemical substrates (e.g. sugar) or from light in photosynthetic microorganisms
144
How/where can microbes be grown to get a useful product
On a large scale in a fermenter
145
What needs to be controlled to ensure the optimum yield of the microbes (product)
Certain environmental conditions
146
What four factors affect growth (microbes)
1. Sterility
3. Temperature
3. Oxygen levels
4. pH
147
Why do fermenters need to be sterile when growing microorganisms
To reduce competition within desired microorganisms for nutrients and reduce the risk of spoilage of the product
148
How is microorganism growth measured
By measuring the increase in cell numbers over a given period of time
149
What are the four phases of growth
1. Lag phase
2. Log phase
3. Stationary phase
4. Death phase
150
What happens during the lag phase
The lag phase shows very little increase in cell number as the cells adjust to the conditions. Microbes induce new enzymes to metabolise the substrate
151
What happens during the log phase
The log phase (exponential phase) is when the cells grow and multiply at maximum rate due to plentiful nutrients
152
When does the stationary phase take place
As the nutrients begin to run out (depleted) or toxic metabolites begin to accumulate
153
What happens during the stationary phase
The number of cells dying is equal to the number of new cells being produced. Secondary metabolites which are not needed for growth can be produced, e.g. antibiotics
154
How does the stationary phase give the microbe an ecological advantage in the wild
It allows them to out-compete other microorganisms (i.e. the antibiotic produced will kill other microbes)
155
What happens during the death phase
The number of cells dying exceeds the number of new cells being produced. There is a lack of nutrients to support new cells or the accumulation of metabolites are so toxic that they can no longer survive
156
Summarise the growth pattern of a unicellular culture (include all four stages)
1. Lag phase:
Where enzymes are induced to metabolise substrates
2. Log or exponential phase:
Most rapid growth due to plentiful nutrients
4. Stationary phase:
Nutrients become depleted and production of toxic metabolites
5. Death phase:
Toxic accumulation of metabolites or lack of nutrients in the culture
157
Which two ways can cell numbers be counted
1. Total cell count
2. Viable cell count
158
What does a total cell count involve
All cells whether dead or alive
159
What does a viable cell count involve
Count only the cells which are alive
160
What does a viable cell count show (that a total a cell count doesn’t) during the death phase
A death phase where cell numbers are decreasing
161
Why is it difficult to graph the log phase on graph paper with regular scales
Because of the rapid increase in cell number
162
What is the best way to graph the log phase
Use a log scale where the scale increases exponentially at each interval on the y-axis
163
What two ways can wild strains of microorganisms be improved by
1. Mutagenesis
2. Recombinant DNA technology
164
Define mutagenesis
The creation of mutations
165
Exposure to what things can result in mutations
UV light and other forms of radiation or mutagenic chemicals
166
What are the five stages to genetic engineering 
1. Bacteria cell with chromosome and plasmid inside, human cell with insulin gene in a chromosome
2. Plasmid extracted from bacteria cell and cut open, gene cut out of chromosome using enzyme
3. Gene inserted into plasmid using enzyme
4. Plasmid inserted into bacterium
5. Grow large numbers of genetically engineered bacteria to produce large quantities of insulin
167
What does recombinant DNA technology enable genetic engineers to do
Transfer gene sequences from one organism to another
168
What does recombinant DNA technology allow the production of
Plant an animal protein by a micro organism that has been artificially transformed
169
What can genetic engineers find during recombinant DNA technology
Particular genes which code for desirable traits
170
What can the gene that genetic engineer is found during recombinant DNA technology be inserted into
A vector, then put into a bacteria cell
171
What does the bacteria cell produced by recombinant DNA technology have the capabilities of
The original gene
172
What is a vector
A DNA molecule used to carry foreign genetic information to another cell
173
What two things are used as vectors during recombinant DNA technology
1. Plasmids
2. Artificial chromosomes
174
When are artificial chromosomes preferred over plasmids as vectors
When larger fragments of foreign DNA are required to be inserted
175
What three sites are in a plasmid vector
1. Restriction site
2. Marker gene
3. Origin of replication
176
What happens in the restriction site of a plasmid vector 
Restriction endonuclease enzymes target sequences of DNA. Different enzymes will target different sequences
177
What are the four steps to recombinant DNA technology
1. A restriction enzyme is used to cut a target sequence of DNA
2. This will remove the required gene from the chromosomes and leave sticky ends
3. The same restriction endonuclease enzymes cut open the restriction site on the plasmid leaving sticky ends which are complimentary to those on the gene
4. Ligase enzyme is used to seal pieces of DNA into plasmids to make a recombinant plasmid with recombinant DNA. Altered plasmids can be inserted into host bacterial cell
178
What does the marker gene on the plasmid allow
Allows the cells with the plasmid to be easily identified
179
What is selective marker genes put in the plasmid to do
To protect the cells, e.g. an antibiotic resistant gene
180
What does the use of the selective marker gene then mean the cells can be subjected to
Subjected to the antibiotic and those with the vector will survive while others won’t survive
181
What does another type of marketing not the selective marker gene allowed the cells containing it to be
Easily identified e.g. a gene which produces fluorescent proteins which show up under UV light
182
What two things does the origin of replication on a plasmid vector have
Genes responsible for the self replication of the plasmid DNA and regulatory sequences allowing it to control the existing genes as well as the inserted genes
183
what five things does recombinant DNA technology use
1. Insulin
2. Human growth hormone
3. Factor VIII
4. EPO (erythropoietin- promotes red blood cell production)
5. Interferon (part of the immune system)
184
What do prokaryotes only contain (introns/exons)
Exons
185
What does prokaryotes only containing exons mean when a eukaryotic gene is inserted into a prokaryote
Are eukaryotic gene when insert into a prokaryote may form an inactive protein as the polypeptide may be folded incorrectly
186
How do scientists overcome the limitations of prokaryotes
Scientists will now often produce desired human proteins using genetically transformed yeast since yeast is a eukaryote
187
How can it be made sure that the newly altered bacterium is safe to use in the environment
Genes could be introduced that prevents its survival in the wild
