Unit 2 Pathphysiology - Chapter 2 Altered Cellular and Tissue Biology Flashcards

Question

What is the greatest source of ROS? | cellular injury

Answer 1

mitochondria

Answer 2

* intracellular ca++ regulation * ROS production/scavenging * regulate apoptotic cell death * activate caspace proteases (control inflammation and cell death)

Answer 3

* Yes, mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA) and it encodes various enzymes involved in oxidative phosphorylation (delivery of electrons via NADH + FADH2, electron transport + proton pumping, form water by splitting o2, ATP Synthesis) for CNS, skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, liver, and kidneys. * role of mediating environmental changes and genomic responses

Answer 4

Damage lipids, proteins, and mtDNA => cell death

Answer 5

Alzheimer's, parkinson's, prion disease (infectious brain disease), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS or loss of muscle control), aging

Answer 6

* hypoxia * ER stress * mental stress * inflammation * osmotic stress

Answer 7

Dietary supplements that are hepatotoxins

Answer 8

Being investigated for benefits amongst select fruts + plants: chamomile (sleepiness, anxiety, GI - flower), silymarin, carrot, ginger root, milk thistle seed, rosemary, tumeric

Answer 9

air pollution

Answer 10

stroke, heart disease, lung disease, respiratory disease, including asthma

Answer 11

lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium

Answer 12

chelation therapy when greater than or equal to 45 mcg per deciliter

Answer 13

alteration of cellular ion status (cations, transport mechanisms, metal enzyme cofactors)

Answer 14

Causes deafness, blindness, intellectual disability, cerebral palsy (disorder of muscle, tone, and posture), and CNS defects in children exposed in utero; leaked methylmercury from industry into water

Answer 15

Iron and mercury both bind to sulfhydral groups (delineating or describe general role and structure of proteins and enzymes) in some proteins l/t CNS and kidney damage.

Answer 16

Milk and fatty foods two drinks per day for men; one drink per day for women (12 oz beer, 4 oz wine, 1.5 oz 80 proof spirit, 1 oz 100 proof spirit)

Answer 17

acetylaldehyde

Answer 18

* Carbon monoxide * Others: cyanide (genetic trait for smell - most population lack), hydrogen sulfide (sewer gas)

Answer 19

in 15% drowning little or no water enters lungs b/c vagal nerve-mediated laryngospasms.

Answer 20

1. invade and destroy cells 2. produce toxins 3. produce damaging hypersentivity rxns

Answer 21

complement opsonization (enhancing phagocytosis of antigens); chemotaxis (attracting macrophages and neutrophils); cell lysis (rupturing membranes of foreign cells); and clumping (antigen-bearing agents).

Answer 22

Interfere w/ membrane by occupying receptors in diabetes mellitus and myasthenia gravis (autoimmune cause weakness in skeletal or voluntary muscles) Autoantibodies in diabetes 1 against insulin or islet cells Myasthenia gravis (MG) is a disease of the postsynaptic neuromuscular junction (NMJ) where nicotinic acetylcholine (ACh) receptors (AChRs) are targeted by autoantibodies. Causing muscle weakness and fatigue (autoimmune)

Answer 23

Plasma membrane's structure, shape, receptors, or transport mechanisms

Answer 24

metabolism of visual pigments

Answer 25

prothrombin synthesis Prothrombin is a protein made by the liver. Prothrombin helps blood to clot. The "prothrombin time" (PT) is one way of measuring how long it takes blood to form a clot, and it is measured in seconds

Answer 26

antioxidation rxn's

Answer 27

affects amino acid transfer rxn's

Answer 28

help transfer electrons in various reactions

Answer 29

calcium and phosphate metabolism

Answer 30

previously health person exposed to the changes that occur w/ cold; can commonly happen in warmer regions; neonates and eldery great risk groups; homeless or even climbers

Answer 31

occurs d/t systemic d/o; e.g - hypothyrodism, hypoglycemia, adrenal insuffciency, metabolic alterations w/ uremia (high waste products in blood d/t kidney filter failure), neurolgic injury, extensive burns, acute MI, skin diseases, hepatic failure

Answer 32

submersion into cold water inducing high incidence of cardiac dysrhythmias

Answer 33

1. triggers tachycadria from sympathetic nervous system 2. while the diving response promotes a parasypathetically mediated bradycardia 3. both happening l/t automatic conflict > dysrhythmias

Answer 34

Continued exposure to cold; vasodilation => swellling l/t affected nerves // thrombosis as well When the body is exposed to very low temperatures, it tries to prevent heat loss by redirecting the blood away from the extremities such as fingers and toes. If exposure is prolonged, ice will start to form inside and around skin cells. The ice crystals block the movement of blood through the fine mesh of capillaries, which means the tissue is deprived of oxygen and nutrients. The longer the tissue remains frozen, the greater the amount of damage.

Answer 35

result of exercise d/t sweat; tx - salt replacement

Answer 36

most common; loss of salt + h2o; hypotension secondary to hypovolemia

Answer 37

high environmental temp and humidity; core temp of 106 f (41 c) is life threatening; vasodilation and decreased blood volume

Answer 38

elevated temp, increased muscle metabolism, muscle rigidity/spasm, rhabdo, acidosis, CV alterations, tachycardia and tachypnea, respiratory and metabolic acidosis, brown urine, hyperkalemia, elevated CK and myoglobulin, DIC, patchy, discolored skin (mottled) - lack of blood flow!, sweating inheritied d/o of skeletal muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum in response to inhalation anesthetics (halothane, isoflurane, sevoflurane, desflurane or succinylcholine. MH is a genetic disorder passed down through families) or succinylcholine (depolarizing muscle relaxant - anectine and suxamethonium) Inherited rxn to certain drugs used during surgery dantrolene (Dantrium, Revonto, Ryanodex) is used to treat the reaction by stopping the release of calcium into muscles.

Answer 39

position supine, use firm sleep surface, breast feed, room-sharing w/o bed-sharing, routine immunizations, use of a pacifier avoid soft bedding, overheating, exposure to smoke

Answer 40

Decompression sickness occurs when rapid pressure reduction (eg, during ascent from a dive, exit from a caisson or hyperbaric chamber, or ascent to altitude) causes gas previously dissolved in blood or tissues to form bubbles in blood vessels. Symptoms typically include pain, neurologic symptoms, or both. slowly reintroduce gas bubbles to blood if not then ischemia d/t gas emobli causing cellular hypoxia

Answer 41

sudden increase or decrease in atmospheric pressure transmitted via air or water onto human body

Answer 42

high altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE), high altitude cerebral edema (HACE), acute mountatin sickness (AMS)

Answer 43

cerebral edema version - hypoxia induced cerebral vasodilation and increased in blood flow, which leak too; pulmonary edema version - hypoxic pulmonary hypertensive response (vasoconstrict l/t leakage from blood vessels to lungs to air sacs)

Answer 44

shift of extracellular water into cells; in hypoxia, reduced ATP and ATPase levels permit sodium to enter cell (usually transported out), where as K+ diffuse out, this increased na+ l/t increased osmotic pressure, whichc draws more water

Answer 45

Cisternae of ER distend, rupture, and coalesce (form one mass) => form large vacuoles that isolate water from cytoplasm

Answer 46

vacuolar degeneration

Answer 47

carbohydrate excess d/o

Answer 48

carbohydrates and lipids excess accmulation

Answer 49

lysosomal storage disease; they involve increased storage of carbohydrates or lipids or both glycosaminoglycans, present in mucus or fluid around joints (muco-) --- polysaccharidoses

Answer 50

**Tay-sachs** (absence of enezyme beta-hexosaminidase A that breakdown fatty acid => accmulate gangliosides affecting brain and spinal cord) // flaw in hexa gene when passed on Muscular: muscle weakness, problems with coordination, rhythmic muscle contractions, or stiff muscles Whole body: feeling faint or wasting away Also common: difficulty speaking, difficulty swallowing, hearing loss, seizures, or vision loss **fabry disease** (enzyme alpha-glactosidase-A cannot breakdown fatty materials or lipids) Episodes of pain in the hands or feet. **Gaucher diease** (cannot breakdown lipids d/t lacking enzyme glucocerebrosidase b/c GBA recessive gene - affect bone marrow, liver, spleen // affect jewish population) Enlarged spleen. Enlarged liver. Eye movement disorders. Yellow spots in the eyes. Not having enough healthy red blood cells (anemia) Extreme tiredness (fatigue) Bruising. Lung problems **Niemann-Pick disease ** (lack ASMD, unable to metabolize fat, collect in macrophages) Acid sphingomyelinase deficiency (ASMD) is a rare progressive genetic disorder that results from a deficiency of the enzyme acid sphingomyelinase, which is required to break down (metabolize) a fatty substance (lipid) called sphingomyelin. Symptoms may include: enlarged liver and spleen (hepatosplenomegaly) difficulty coordinating movement (ataxia) abnormal eye movements (vertical supranuclear gaze palsy) poor muscle tone (hypotonia) severe liver disease. frequent respiratory infections. difficulty with speech. difficulty with swallowing and feeding. **Pompe disease** (buildup of glycogen in the body's cells) --- progressive weakness to heart and skeletal muscle Classic type: Weak muscles Poor muscle tone Enlarged liver Failure to gain weight and grow at the expected rate (failure to thrive) Trouble breathing Feeding problems Infections in the respiratory system Problems with hearing Non-classic type: Motor skills delayed (such as rolling over and sitting) Muscles get steadily weaker Abnormally large heart Breathing problems **mucopolysaccharidoses** (corneal clouding, joint stiffness, intellectual disability)

Answer 51

intracellular lipid accmulation in liver

Answer 52

1. Metabolites from protein digestion can affect other organelles when released from lysomsomes 2. Excessive proteins push against organelles

Answer 53

russell bodies d/t excess proteins in B lymphocytes Any small intracellular body found within another (accmulute in ER inside cytoplasm) -- Russell bodies Cancer of WBC

Answer 54

yellow-brown

Answer 55

carbon or coal dust

Answer 56

Addison's disease (melanogenesis) Does not produce steroid hormones: cortisol; aldosterone => hypoglycemia, hypotension, wt loss, GI disturbance (n/v, abdominal pain), weakness, hair changes Adrenal crisis: profound fatigue, dehydration, low bp, serum NA down, serum K+ (d/t renal failure) elevated

Answer 57

inherited d/o; decrease in melanin production

Answer 58

1. tissue stores 2. intestinal mucosa 3. macrophages digesting RBC

Answer 59

excessive iron stored

Answer 60

initial bruise/hemorrhage starts red-blue then lysis of RBC causing hemosiderin to build up (yellow-brown pigment) causing that yellow-brown appearance

Answer 61

hemosiderosis

Answer 62

jaundice or icterus (bilirubin level exceed 1.5 -2 mg/dl rather than 0.4 - 1) // yellowing of skin

Answer 63

build up of bilirubin in blood; d/t hemolytic jaundice, liver diesase, or gallstones/pancreatic tumors

Answer 64

Albumin can bind to them

Answer 65

occurs in dead tissues of necrosis

Answer 66

occur in undamaged tissues d/t hypercalcemia // hyperparathyroidism (osteoclast and calcium reabsorption via kidney and phosphate excreted, hyperthyroidism (thyroid causes more bone resorption and excretion), addison disease (volume depletion and renal not excreting Ca++), toxic lvl vitamin D (intestinal and renal absorption)

Answer 67

end product of purine (animal products from liver, intestine, muscles [exoogenous] and endothelium; dead cells from DNA/RNA [endogenous] --- adenine and guanine) catabolism; missing enzyme urate oxidase then urate must be removed via bowel and urine

Answer 68

firm nodular subq deposits of urate crystals surrounded by fibrosis Uric acid is a normal body waste product. It forms when chemicals called purines break down. Purines are a natural substance found in the body. They are also found in many foods, such as liver, shellfish, and alcohol. They can also be formed in the body when DNA is broken down. When purines are broken down to uric acid in the blood, the body gets rid of it when you urinate or have a bowel movement. But if your body makes too much uric acid, or if your kidneys aren't working well, uric acid can build up in the blood. Uric acid levels can also increase when you eat too many high-purine foods or take medicines like diuretics, aspirin, and niacin. Then crystals of uric acid can form and collect in the joints. This causes painful inflammation. This condition is called gout. It can also lead to kidney stones. Niacin -- vit b3 (made and used by body to turn food into energy)

Answer 69

released from RBC, liver, kidney, skeletal muscle Tissue damage

Answer 70

release from skeletal muscle, brain, heart Increased amounts of CK are released into the blood when there is muscle damage such as a heart attack, skeletal muscle injuries, certain muscle disorders, or strenuous exercise. A CK level may also rise when excessive alcohol, cocaine, and certain medications are taken, such as a statin for elevated cholesterol. When CK adds phosphates to creatine, it turns the creatine into the high-energy molecule, phosphocreatine, which your body uses to generate energy (muscles)

Answer 71

release from heart, liver, skeletal muscle, kidney, pancreas Metabolize amino acids aspartate w/ glutamate important Aspartate non essential + glutamate (NT)

Answer 72

liver, kidney, heart

Answer 73

liver, bone ALP is an enzyme found in the liver and bone and is important for breaking down proteins. Higher-than-normal levels of ALP may indicate liver damage or disease, such as a blocked bile duct, or certain bone diseases.

Answer 74

pancreas An amylase is an enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis of starch into sugars. Amylase is present in the saliva of humans and some other mammals, where it begins the chemical process of digestion.

Answer 75

skeletal muscle, heart enzyme helps the body break down sugars to produce energy.

Answer 76

necrosis driven by regulated or programmed molecular pathways

Answer 77

* necrosis: swelling; disrupted membrane; leak out; inflammation; pathologic * apoptosis: reduced size; fragmented nucleosomes; intact membrane; no inflammation; physiologic; apoptotic bodies remove cellular content

Answer 78

cause gas bubbles to form in muscle cells via enzymes and toxins - clostridium; lyse RBC can be fatal

Answer 79

excessive accmulation of misfolded proteins => apoptotic cell death // linked to CNS degenerative disease

Answer 80

ishcemic injury to neurons and glial cells in the brain => cyst + pus

Answer 81

kidneys, heart, adrenal glands - hypoxia caused by severe ischemia or chemical injury (mercuric chloride) => opaque state (protein albumin => gelatinous state)

Answer 82

TB pulmonary infection (combination of coagulative and liquefactive necrosis) => clumped cheese

Answer 83

breasts, pancreas, abdominal structures =? creates soap b/c free fatty acids from breakdown bind with ca++, mg, na+ (saponification)

Answer 84

aspartic acid-specific proteases; amplify suicide cascade; cleave other key proteins => killing cell quickly and neatly

Answer 85

intrinsic pathway

Answer 86

extrinsic pathway The extrinsic pathway involves the binding of ligands to cell surface 'death receptors' (DR) which in turn initiates the caspase cascade.

Answer 87

caused by hypoxia and subequent bactieral invasion

Answer 88

important in homeostasis; lysosomes breakdown cyatoplasmic parts and organelles and then salvage key metabolite

Answer 89

the process of aging; permanent proliferative arrest

Answer 90

increased levels of body cytokines and proinflammatory markers; changes with aged immune system

Answer 91

common clinical syndrome in OA

Answer 92

death of entire organism

Answer 93

cessation of resp/circ, low temp, dilation of pupils, loss elasticity, loss transparency in skin, rigor mortis (muslce stiffening), discoloration (livor mortis)

Answer 94

24-48 hours after death

Answer 95

loss of muscle mass