Unit 2: Political institutions

Question 1

Executive leadership in China

Answer 1

China’s president serves as commander in chief and General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (National Party Congress). He nominates the premier of the State Council, who serves as head of government overseeing the civil service. Changes in top leadership are accomplished behind closed doors. Top leaders determine top governing officials from within the ranks of the party leaders without input from the public.

– Current President: Xi Jinping

Question 2

Executive leadership in Iran

Answer 2

Iran’s supreme leader acts as head of state and ensures all aspects of the government uphold Shi’a Islam. He serves as commander in chief, and appoints top ministers, the Expediency Council, half of the Guardian Council, and the head of the judiciary. He is appointed by the Assembly of Experts and is directly elected. Iran’s president acts as head of government and is responsible for the implementation of policies approved by the supreme leader and is directly elected. The winning candidate must secure a majority of the national vote in either the first or second round of balloting.

– Current Supreme Leader: Ayatollah Khamenei

Question 3

Executive leadership in Mexico

Answer 3

Mexico’s elected president is both head of state and head of government, and serves as commander in chief and leader of the bureaucracy. He is limited to one term and appoints members of the cabinet with some positions needing approval from the Senate. Mexico conducts a direct election for president every 6 years, and the winning candidate must secure a plurality of the national vote.

– Current President: Andrés Manuel López Obrador

Question 4

Executive leadership in Nigeria

Answer 4

Nigeria’s elected president serves as both head of state and head of government and can approve domestic legislation and conduct foreign policy. The president appoints members of the cabinet with the approval of the Senate. Nigeria conducts a direct election for president every 4 years, and the winning candidate must secure a majority of the national vote and at least 25% of the vote in 2/3 of the states.

– Current President: Bola Tinubu (just succeeded Muhammadu Buhari)

Question 5

Executive leadership in Russia

Answer 5

Russia’s prime minister, the head of government, oversees the civil service. The elected president, head of state and commander in chief, appoints top ministers, conducts foreign policy, and presides over the Duma. The president also appoints top judges and can dissolve the Duma to call for new legislative elections. Russia conducts a direct election for president every 6 years, with the winning candidate having to secure a majority of the national vote in the first or second round of balloting. Every winning candidate since Putin in 2000 has secured victory in the first round of balloting.

– Current President: Vladimir Putin

Question 6

Executive leadership in the United Kingdom

Answer 6

The United Kingdom’s monarch serves ceremonially as head of state and formally appoints the leader of the party or coalition holding the largest number of seats in the House of Commons as prime minister. The prime minister can call elections, set the foreign policy agenda, and serve as de facto commander in chief and chief executive over the civil service. The prime minister leads the cabinet’s formulation of policy and implementation and enforcement of policy through different methods and bureaucratic agencies.

– Current Prime Minister: Rishi Sunak
– Current monarch: King Charles II

Question 7

Executive term limits in China

Answer 7

In China, presidents had operated with 10-year term limits until President Xi. During Xi’s presidency, the National Party Congress changed the constitution in 2018 to allow the president to serve an unlimited number of 5-year terms.

Question 8

Executive term limits in Iran

Answer 8

In Iran, the supreme leader serves 10-year terms but neither of Iran’s two supreme leaders has ever been removed from office by the Assembly of Experts. Iran’s president cannot serve more than two consecutive terms in office.

Question 9

Executive term limits in Mexico

Answer 9

In Mexico, the president has a one-term limit of 6 years called the sexenio

Question 10

Executive term limits in Nigeria

Answer 10

In Nigeria, the president has a two-term limit of 4 years for each term

Question 11

Executive term limits in Russia

Answer 11

The 1993 constitution in Russia stated that a president had a term limit of no more than two consecutive terms of 4 years for each term. Vladimir Putin served his first two terms from 1999 until 2008, and was then named as prime minister by President Medvedev. In 2012, the constitution was changed to increase a president’s term to 6 years, and Putin was re-elected in 2018. The 2020 constitutional changes were approved by public referendum, allowing Putin to run again in 2024 and be re-elected to another 6-year term in 2030. In 2021, the Duma and Federation Council passed legislation that officially allowed Putin to run for two more terms as president in 2024.

Question 12

Executive term limits in the United Kingdom

Answer 12

The head of state and prime minister in the UK have no formal term limits. The monarch serves until death or abdication, and the prime minister can be removed through an election if their party loses majority control of Commons or votes to remove them. A new party leader is appointed as the new PM.

Question 13

Removal of executive leadership in the United Kingdom

Answer 13

• The head of state serves until death or abdication
• The prime minister serves until ousted as party leader, voted out by Commons in a no confidence vote, or until a rival party wins control of the House of Commons through election. A successful no confidence vote by Commons forces the prime minister and cabinet to resign, allowing the majority party of Commons to select a new prime minister and cabinet.

Question 14

Removal of executive leadership in Russia

Answer 14

In Russia, the president can be removed through impeachment by the legislature, but no president has been
removed through impeachment in Russia.

Question 15

Removal of executive leadership in China

Answer 15

In China, the National People’s Congress has the power to remove a president. Since China’s constitutional changes in 1982, no president has been removed through this process in China.

Question 16

Removal of executive leadership in Nigeria

Answer 16

In Nigeria, the president can be removed through impeachment by the legislature, but no president has been
removed through impeachment in Nigeria.

Question 17

Removal of executive leadership in Mexico

Answer 17

Mexico’s constitution mentions impeachment of the president, but the process is unclear and no president has been removed through impeachment.

Question 18

Removal of executive leadership in Iran

Answer 18

• Iran’s constitution mentions the Assembly of Experts’ ability to dismiss the supreme leader, but the process of removing the supreme leader is unclear. Neither of Iran’s supreme leaders has ever been removed from office by the Assembly of Experts.
• The president can be removed from office by the legislature and supreme leader, but no president has been removed through this process.

Question 19

Legislative institutions in China

Answer 19

China’s party-controlled system is unicameral and consists of an indirectly elected National People’s Congress (NPC) that elects the president, approves the premier, and legitimizes policies of the executive. Members serve 5-year terms and are indirectly elected through regional legislative assemblies. The NPC is seen as a rubberstamp of executive policy decisions and meets for a two-week session each year.

Question 20

Legislative institutions in Iran

Answer 20

Iran’s theocracy is unicameral, with the Majles elected and holding the power to approve legislation, oversee the budget, and confirm presidential nominees to the Cabinet. It acts under the supervision of the Guardian Council to ensure compatibility with Islam and Sharia law. Majles members are elected on fixed terms of every four years, and the Guardian Council vets candidates for office. Half of the Guardian Council are appointed by the supreme leader and half by the head of the judiciary. Majles votes to approve these appointments.

Question 21

Legislative institutions in Mexico

Answer 21

Mexico’s congressional-presidential system is bicameral, with an elected lower house (the Chamber of Deputies) that approves legislation, levies taxes, and verifies outcomes of elections, and an elected upper house (the Senate) that holds the unique power to confirm presidential appointments to the supreme court, approve treaties, and approve federal intervention in state matters. The Chamber of Deputies has a four-term limit of 3 years each while the Senate has a two-term limit of 6 years each, elected partially in SMDP and partially in PR.

Question 22

Legislative institutions in Nigeria

Answer 22

Nigeria’s congressional-presidential system is bicameral, consisting of an elected upper and lower chamber. The House of Representatives (lower chamber) is directly elected in single-member district elections, while the Senate (upper chamber) is directly elected in multi-member state elections. The Senate approves legislation and can also hold the cabinet accountable for policy implementation with impeachment and confirmation powers.

Question 23

Legislative institutions in Russia

Answer 23

Russia’s parliamentary-hybrid system is bicameral and consists of an elected state Duma (partially elected in party list elections and partly in SMDP), which passes legislation and confirms the prime minister, and an appointed Federation Council which approves budget legislation, treaties, judicial nominees, and troop deployment.

Question 24

Legislative institutions in the United Kingdom

Answer 24

The UK’s parliamentary system is bicameral, consisting of an SMDP elected House of Commons (lower chamber) which approves legislation and selects the prime minister, and an appointed House of Lords (upper chamber) which reviews and amends bills from the Commons. Commons can remove the prime minister and cabinet with a vote of no confidence, while Lords can review and suggest amendments with slight delay.

Question 25

Legislative checks on executive independence in China

Answer 25

• China’s Politburo Standing Committee, which is the actual center of power in the Chinese state
• The Standing Committee of the NPC sets NPC legislative agenda, supervises member elections, and interprets the Constitution and laws

Question 26

Legislative checks on executive independence in Iran

Answer 26

• Iran’s Expediency Council, which is selected by the supreme leader as an advisory committee to resolve disputes between the Majles and the Guardian Council.
• Iran’s Guardian Council, which vets legislative and presidential candidates and oversees the Majles to make sure laws comply with Islamic law

Question 27

Legislative checks on executive independence in UK

Answer 27

The only meaningful check the parliament has on the executive in the UK is the vote of no confidence to remove a prime minister.

Question 28

Legislative checks on executive independence in Nigeria, Mexico, and Russia

Answer 28

Presidents in Mexico, Nigeria and Russia have the executive power to issue decrees and directives to shape how executive bureaucracies enforce and implement policies, without the approval of the legislative branch.

Question 29

How do legislatures reinforce legitimacy?

Answer 29

Legislatures have the potential to reinforce legitimacy and stability by responding to public demand, openly debating policy,
facilitating compromise between factions, extending civil liberties, and restricting the power of the executive

Question 30

Judiciaries in China

Answer 30

• In China, rule by law means the judicial system is subservient to the decisions of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), which controls most judicial appointments
• The CCP controls most appointments of judges and courts are used to enforce party decisions.

Question 31

Judiciaries in Iran

Answer 31

The Iranian judiciary is responsible for ensuring that the legal system is based on Islamic Sharia law. The head of the judiciary is appointed by the supreme leader and can nominate half of the Guardian Council with approval by the Majles. There are civil courts in Iran for some crimes, while revolutionary courts handle more serious crimes like national security trials. In Iran, the rule of law is weaker due to its judiciary being not independent. Since 2015, government authorities have prosecuted two Iranian heavy metal rock bands for producing music that promotes blasphemy.

Question 32

Judiciaries in Nigeria

Answer 32

The Nigerian judiciary has the power to reestablish its legitimacy and independence by reducing corruption. Islamic Sharia courts have been established in the north, and supreme court judges are appointed by the president with confirmation by the Senate.

Question 33

Judiciaries in Russia

Answer 33

Russia’s government uses the judicial system to target opposition, and judges are nominated by the president and approved by the Federation Council. The 1993 constitution intended for the judiciary to become independent, but the executive branch has controlled it to keep preferred leaders in power. The 2020 changes to the constitution allow the president to demand that the Federation Council dismiss justices in Russia’s supreme and constitutional courts, creating a legal method for the president to erode judicial independence

Question 34

Judiciaries in Mexico

Answer 34

The Mexican judiciary is in transition, with the supreme court having the power of judicial review and constitutional amendments to make it more independent and effective. Supreme court magistrates are nominated by the president and approved by the Senate for a
term of 15 years.

Question 35

Judiciaries in the UK

Answer 35

The UK’s judicial system uses common law and an independent judiciary to enforce the rule of law, with the Supreme Court serving as the final court of appeals, protecting human/civil rights and liberties, and ruling on devolution disputes. Top judges are recommended by an independent judicial selection committee and nominated by the prime minister. The Supreme Court was established by an act of Parliament in 2009.

Question 36

How do independent judiciaries strengthen democracy?

Answer 36

Independent judiciaries can strengthen democracy by maintaining checks and balances, protecting rights and liberties,
establishing the rule of law, and maintaining separation of powers

Question 37

Independence of Judiciaries in China

Answer 37

In China, there is no independence of courts even though judges sometimes make rulings against the government in lawsuits by citizens. These rulings against the government are seen as superficial without the
power of judicial review.

Question 38

Independence of Judiciaries in Iran

Answer 38

Iran’s constitution states the judiciary is an independent power but the courts are commonly used to prosecute opposition figures This creates a culture of rule by law (as contrasted to rule of law in an
independent judiciary.)

Question 39

Independence of Judiciaries in Mexico

Answer 39

In Mexico, the judiciary has improved its independence with constitutional amendments, but the growing influence of organized criminal groups has threatened the independence of courts. Mexico’s supreme court has judges who are recommended by the president with confirmation by Mexico’s Senate and with a 15 year term limit.

Question 40

Independence of Judiciaries in Nigeria

Answer 40

Nigeria’s judiciary has tried to improve its independence by reducing corruption and using a common law legal system. The supreme court has the power of judicial review, but President Buhari’s suspension of the chief justice prior to the 2019 presidential election could be an indicator of reversing independence.

Question 41

Independence of Judiciaries in Russia

Answer 41

Russia’s judiciary is not seen as independent due to the government’s use of courts to target political opponents and dissidents. The 2020 changes to the constitution allow the president to demand dismissal of justices in Russia’s supreme and constitutional courts, creating a legal method for the president to erode judicial independence.

Question 42

Independence of Judiciaries in the UK

Answer 42

The UK’s judicial branch is independent from partisan influence and control by the legislative and executive branches, allowing for rule of law and some degree of judicial checks and balances

example to remember: In 2019, the UK Supreme Court ruled against PM Boris Johnson’s suspension of Parliament, but Johnson suggested that the supreme court judges be held more accountable for their decisions.

Question 43

Legislative branch

Answer 43

part of government responsible for writing laws and major policies

Question 44

Executive branch

Answer 44

part of government responsible for implementing laws through the government’s bureaucracy

Question 45

Judicial branch

Answer 45

part of government responsible for hearing cases, and applying and interpreting laws to resolve legal disputes

Question 46

Head of State

Answer 46

executive leader who represents a nation in ceremonial functions; in some governments can also have formal
powers to shape foreign policy

Question 47

Head of Government

Answer 47

executive leader sometimes known as a chief executive who formulates, implements and enforces policies through the cabinet and different agencies

Question 48

Parliamentary systems

Answer 48

when a national legislature has combined lawmaking and executive functions with the power to select and remove a prime minister who acts as head of government

Question 49

Presidential systems

Answer 49

when separate election processes are used in the selection of the president and the national legislature; president serves as head of state and head of government who oversees the bureaucratic implementation of executive regulations and laws written by the legislature

Question 50

Semi-presidential systems

Answer 50

when separate election processes are used in the selection of the president and the national legislature; president serves as head of state and selects the head of government, with the legislature’s approval, to shape
policies and implement the legislature’s laws.

Question 51

Executive term limits

Answer 51

institutional constraints on the length of time a head of state or head of government can serve in office.
The United Kingdom is the only AP Comparative country with no formal executive term limit on its head of state and head of
government.

Question 52

No-confidence vote

Answer 52

used in parliamentary systems as a method for the legislature to remove the prime minister as head of government

Question 53

Impeachment

Answer 53

used in presidential systems as a method for the legislature to remove the president and other executive officials from office

Question 54

Fixed-term election system

Answer 54

in which elections for public officials take place on a regularly announced established date

Question 55

Executive bureaucracy

Answer 55

is the system of governmental agencies that implement executive regulations and laws written by the legislature

Question 56

PM Question Time

Answer 56

allows majority members of a legislature to indicate representation of the interest of their constituencies (districts) and allows the opposition party to verbally challenge the majority party governance and policy making.*

Question 57

Executive cabinet

Answer 57

top governmental officials in charge of formulating, implementing, and enforcing policy through different methods and bureaucratic agencies

Question 58

Commander in chief

Answer 58

top governmental official in charge of decisions pertaining to the military

Question 59

Unicameral

Answer 59

a legislature consisting of one chamber

Question 60

Bicameral

Answer 60

a legislature consisting of two chambers (one upper, one lower)