UNIT 2 PSYCH EXAM

Question 1

how we can perceive our own names amongst a
cacophony of other sounds ̶ is a great example of selective attention.

Answer 1

cocktail party effect

Question 2

failing to see
visible objects when our attention is
directed elsewhere, we are focused on a
task, e.g. the invisible gorilla.

Answer 2

Inattentional blindness

Question 3

failing to notice
changes in the environment
* Is a form of inattentional blindness, e.g.
the door effect.
* Is often the culprit in accidents.

Answer 3

Change blindness

Question 4

a set of mental tendencies and assumptions that
affects, top-down, what we hear, taste, feel and see. eg, young lady vs old witch

Answer 4

Perceptual set

Question 5

the organization of the visual field into objects (the
figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

Answer 5

Figure-ground

Question 6

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.

Answer 6

grouping

Question 7

the ability to see objects in three dimensions.
Allows us to judge distance

Answer 7

Depth perception

Question 8

images from the two eye are not the same. The
difference is greatest when the object is closest to the eyes.

Answer 8

Retinal disparity

Question 9

Our two eyes move inward to focus
on near objects and outward to focus
on faraway objects.
* Neuromuscular cue.

Answer 9

Convergence

Question 10

If an object blocks
another, we perceive it to
be closer

Answer 10

Interposition

Question 11

Closer objects appear
more textured; those in
the distance are
perceived as smooth.

Answer 11

Texture gradient

Question 12

The sharper the angle of
convergence, the greater
the perceived distance.

Answer 12

Linear perspective

Question 13

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals. Researchers use the ____________, where 6- to 14-month-old children are placed on an apparatus that mimics a cliff.

Answer 13

visual cliff

Question 14

an illusion of continuous movement (as in a
motion picture) experienced when viewing a rapid series of slightly
varying still images.

Answer 14

Stroboscopic movement

Question 15

perceiving objects as unchanging (having
consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and
retinal images change.

Answer 15

Perceptual constancy

Question 16

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color,
even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the
object.

Answer 16

Color constancy

Question 17

perceiving
shape to stay constant even
as retinal images change

Answer 17

shape constancy

Question 18

cognition about our cognition; keeping track of and
evaluating our mental processes.
* Thinking about thinking.

Answer 18

metacognition

Question 19

Concepts that help us to organize and interpret the world are called
_________.

_________ are built from our experiences.

Answer 19

schemas

Question 20

When we add new experiences with familiar
concepts to our existing schemas, we are
_____________.
For example, a toddler may call all four-legged animals “dog” after having created a schema for
dog.

Answer 20

assimilating

Question 21

If we encounter new information that does
not match up with a preexisting schema, we must modify it or create a new one in a
process called __________________.
Eventually, the child will create a new schema when it realizes that a horse is not a dog.

Answer 21

accomodation

Question 22

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the
single best solution.
* Type of thinking utilized when taking tests such as the SAT.

Answer 22

Convergent thinking

Question 23

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions

Answer 23

Divergent thinking

Question 24

cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to
generate, organize, plan, and implement goal-directed behavior.

Answer 24

Executive functioning

Question 25

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. * Contrasts with the use of heuristics.

Answer 25

Algorithm

Question 26

a simple thinking strategy — a mental shortcut — that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently * usually speedier * more error-prone than an algorithm. * Unscramble SPLOYOCHYG by grouping letters that appear together

Answer 26

Heuristics

Question 27

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution -contrast with strategy-based solutions. Aha! moment

Answer 27

insight

Question 28

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

Answer 28

Confirmation bias

Question 29

in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle in problem solving

Answer 29

Fixation

Question 30

judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information. Imagine someone who is short and slim, and likes to read poetry. Is this person more likely to be an Ivey League university English professor or a truck driver (Nisbett and Ross, 1980)? Many people guess English professor due to prototypes and failing to consider base rate number of Ivey league English professors (fewer than 400) and truck drivers (3.5 million in the US alone).

Answer 30

Representativeness heuristic

Question 31

judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common. After seeing news coverage of lottery winners, people may spend more money on lottery tickets, even though their chances of winning are low. After getting sick from food poisoning at a restaurant, people may assume the restaurant is always unsafe, even though food poisoning is rare. After hearing about a plane crash, people may be more nervous to fly even though air travel is actually safer than driving.

Answer 31

Availability heuristic

Question 32

the tendency to be more confident than correct — to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements.

Answer 32

Overconfidence

Question 33

the persistence of one’s initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited. Even when contradictory evidence is provided, we may not change our minds. Rather, we may strengthen our original beliefs.

Answer 33

Belief perseverance

Question 34

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

Answer 34

Framing

Question 35

framing choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions.

Answer 35

nudge

Question 36

a measure of memory in which a person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in- the-blank test.

Answer 36

recall

Question 37

a measure of memory in which a person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple- choice test.

Answer 37

recognition

Question 38

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.

Answer 38

Relearning

Question 39

the process of getting information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

Answer 39

Encoding

Question 40

the process of retaining encoded information over time

Answer 40

Storage

Question 41

the process of getting information out of memory storage

Answer 41

Retrieval

Question 42

processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously

Answer 42

Parallel processing

Question 43

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. Only information we pay attention to and encode further will move into short-term memory.

Answer 43

Sensory memory

Question 44

briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is later stored or forgotten. Has limited duration and capacity.

Answer 44

Short-term memory

Question 45

the relatively permanent, limitless archive of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Answer 45

Long-term memory

Question 46

a newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both (1) incoming sensory information and (2) information retrieved from long-term memory.

Answer 46

Working memory

Question 47

a memory component that briefly holds auditory information.

Answer 47

Phonological loop:

Question 48

a memory component that briefly holds information about objects’ appearance and location in space

Answer 48

Visuospatial sketchpad

Question 49

the formation of new neurons

Answer 49

Neurogenesis

Question 50

-retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know (“declare”) Also called declarative memory.) Encoding is effortful; -requires attention and conscious effort.

Answer 50

Explicit memory

Question 51

-retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. Also called nondeclarative memory.) Encoding is automatic, unconscious.

Answer 51

Implicit memory

Question 52

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; -a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

Answer 52

Iconic memory

Question 53

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; -if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

Answer 53

Echoic memory

Question 54

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically. e.g.: bank account numbers are more easily remembered when broken into chunks

Answer 54

Chunking

Question 55

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. e.g. ROY G BIV

Answer 55

Mnemonics

Question 56

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through mass study or practice.

Answer 56

Spacing effect

Question 57

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention and retrieval.

Answer 57

Deep processing:

Question 58

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words.

Answer 58

Shallow processing

Question 59

explicit memories of facts and general knowledge If new information connects with an existing schema, it is more easily stored.

Answer 59

Semantic memory

Question 60

explicit memory of personally experienced events Episodic memories are personal to us and connect to experiences we have had. What did you have for dinner last night?

Answer 60

Episodic memory

Question 61

-a neural center located in the limbic system -helps process explicit (conscious) memories—of facts and events—for storage. * There are two * volume of a large lima bean. * Above the ear, about 1.5” inside your head. * Temporal lobe

Answer 61

Hippocampus

Question 62

the neural storage of a long-term memory __________________ occurs during sleep.

Answer 62

Memory consolidation

Question 63

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. *_______________ are highly vivid, detailed snapshots of something emotionally relevant to us: our first kiss, wedding day, or birth of a child.

Answer 63

Flashbulb memory

Question 64

-an automatic association -can trigger our memories and influence our perception -often unconscious After seeing a rabbit, we are more likely to spell the word hair as hare, even if we don’t remember seeing the rabbit in the first place.

Answer 64

priming

Question 65

Being back in the same environment in which the original memory occurred can aid in retrieval. Context may help with memory retrieval.

Answer 65

Context-dependent memory

Question 66

cues and context specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it. This explains why we may not recognize a person if they are in a place we don’t usually associate with them.

Answer 66

Encoding specificity principle

Question 66

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.

Answer 66

Mood-congruent memory

Question 67

our tendency to recall best the last items in a list initially (a recency effect), and the first items in a list after a delay (a primacy effect).

Answer 67

Serial position effect

Question 68

a retrieval strategy that involves mixing the study of different topics.

Answer 68

Interleaving

Question 69

an inability to form new memories.

Answer 69

Anterograde amnesia:

Question 70

an inability to remember information from one’s past.

Answer 70

Retrograde amnesia

Question 71

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information. For example, when you move to college or your first apartment, your old address keeps coming to mind when you are trying to think of your new one.

Answer 71

Proactive interference

Question 72

the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information. For example, your new computer password may make it difficult for you to remember your old one.

Answer 72

Retroactive interference

Question 73

a process by which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again.

Answer 73

Reconsolidation

Question 74

____________ is our ability to reason speedily and abstractly. It is how we apply what we know and acquire new skills., e.g. solving a puzzle, getting out of an escape room. More biologically based.

Answer 74

Fluid intelligence

Question 75

______________ is an accumulation of our knowledge and continues to grow as we do. The more we learn, the more we know, e.g. playing trivia games, knowing facts about history/geography; solving math problem using formula. Influenced by experience/environment/nurture.

Answer 75

Crystallized intelligence

Question 76

Theory states that we do have a general intelligence, but accompanied by Gf and Gc. * -developed by Raymond Cattell and his associates (John Horn and John Carroll) * This theory recognizes that we have many mental abilities under the broader umbrella of general intelligence. * Used in educational and clinical settings as well as research.

Answer 76

Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory

Question 77

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation, music or art.

Answer 77

Savant syndrome:

Question 78

a test designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn, e.g. college entrance exam such as the SAT.

Answer 78

Aptitude test

Question 79

a test designed to assess what a person has learned, e.g. an AP exam.

Answer 79

Achievement test

Question 80

the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet’s original intelligence test.

Answer 80

Stanford-Binet

Question 81

Intelligence scores have improved over time worldwide in a phenomenon known as the _______

Answer 81

Flynn effect

Question 82

the extent to which a test yields consistent results

Answer 82

Reliability

Question 83

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it’s supposed to (see also predictive ________).

Answer 83

Validity

Question 84

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.

Answer 84

Cross-sectional study:

Question 85

research that follows and retests the same people over time.

Answer 85

Longitudinal study

Question 86

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.

Answer 86

Stereotype threat