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AP Psychology > Unit 3 > Flashcards

Unit 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Sensation

A

The process by which our sensory receptors (eyes, ears, etc.) and nervous system use, receive, and represent stimulus energies from our environment

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2
Q

Bottom-up processing

A

starts at sensory receptors and works up to higher levels of processing

Starts by noticing individual elements and then zooms out to appreciate the whole picture

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3
Q

Perception

A

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

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4
Q

Top-down processing

A

using models, ideas, and expectations to interpret sensory information

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5
Q

process of transduction

A

conversion of energy, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural messages that our brain can interpret.

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6
Q

Absolute threshold

A

the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

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7
Q

Subliminal

A

below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness

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8
Q

Difference threshold

A

the smallest amount by which a stimulus can be changed and the difference be detected, half of the time

AKA the noticeable difference

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9
Q

Weber’s Law

A

The principle that to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

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10
Q

Sensory adaptation

A

the diminishing responsiveness of our sensory system to prolonged stimulation

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11
Q

Perceptual Set

A

A set of mental tendencies and assumptions that affects (top-down) what we hear, taste, feel, and see

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12
Q

Selective attention

A

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

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13
Q

Cocktail party effect

A

while in a crowded room we focus on our conservation and nothing around us - then someone says our name across the room

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14
Q

Inattentional blindness

A

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

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15
Q

Change blindness

A

failing to notice changes in the environment

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16
Q

Cornea

A

the eye’s clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil and iris

Shape bends light toward the center of the eyeball

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17
Q

Iris

A

colored part of the eye - muscle that adjusts by opening and closing in response to brightness

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18
Q

Pupil

A

adjustable opening in center of eye through which light enters

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19
Q

Lens

A

light passes through the lens - transparent structure behind the pupil

Curved and flexible and changes its curvature to help focus images

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20
Q

Retina

A

light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye

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21
Q

Rods

A

detect black/white/gray and can work in very dim light for night vision

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22
Q

Cones

A

function online in bright light and allow us to perceive color (red, green, blue)

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23
Q

Accommodation

A

the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

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24
Q

Fovea

A

central focal point in retina, around which eye’s cones cluster

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25
Q

Optic nerve

A

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

Made up of ganglion cells axons that are twisted together

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26
Q

Blind spot

A

where the optic nerve leaves the eye - hole in the retina - no photoreceptors - you cannot see

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27
Q

Trichromatic theory

A

theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors

Work together to let us perceive a range of colors

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28
Q

Opponent-process theory

A

the theory that opposing retinal processes enable color vision

Light waves excite one of the two colors in the pair, which will inhibit the excitation of the opposing color in the pair

Red-green
Blue-yellow
white-black

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29
Q

Gestalt

A

an organized whole
Gestalt psychologists emphasize our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful whole

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30
Q

Figure-ground

A

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)

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31
Q

Grouping

A

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

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32
Q

Proximity

A

group nearby figures together

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33
Q

Continuity

A

perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones

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34
Q

Closure

A

fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object

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35
Q

Depth Perception

A

The ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional

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36
Q

Binocular Cues

A

A depth cue that depends on the use of two eyes
Used to judge the distance of nearby objects

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37
Q

Convergence

A

the inward angle of the eyes focusing on a near object

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38
Q

Retinal disparity

A

by comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance

the greater the disparity between the two eyes the closer the object

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39
Q

Monocular Cues

A

Depth perception cues that require only one eye

40
Q

Linear perspective

A

makes parallel lines appear to converge at a vanishing point on the horizon

41
Q

Interposition

A

if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer

42
Q

Relative size

A

if we assume two objects are similar in size, most people perceive the one that casts the smaller retinal image as farther away

43
Q

Relative height

A

makes objects higher in your field of vision appear farther

44
Q

Light and shadow

A

nearby objects reflect more light to our eyes than distant ones, if there are two identical objects the dimmer one seems further away

45
Q

Relative motion

A

occurs when we ourselves are the moving objects and the objects that are fixed in one place appear to move along with us

46
Q

Perceptual Constancy

A

Perceiving objects as unchanging (having constituent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change

47
Q

Color constancy

A

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

48
Q

Size constancy

A

tendency for the brain to perceive object as the same apparent size regardless of their distance from us

49
Q

Shape constancy

A

we perceive the form of famility objects, such as a door, as constant even while our retinas receive changing images of them

50
Q

Audition

A

the sense or act of hearing

51
Q

Amplitude

A

(height) determine their perceived loudness

52
Q

Frequency

A

(length) determines the pitch

53
Q

middle ear

A

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones that concentrate the vibration of the eardrum

54
Q

Cochlea

A

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sounds waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses

55
Q

Sensorineural Hearing Loss

A

Hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves

treatment = Cochlear implant: a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

56
Q

Conduction Hearing Loss

A

Caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to cochlea
Specifically damaged to the eardrum and middle ear bones
treatment = hearing aids

57
Q

Place theory

A

the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated

High frequencies produce large vibrations near the beginning of the cochlea’s membrane
Low frequencies vibrated more of the membrane and were not so easily localized
Explains how we hear high-pitched sounds but not low-pitched sounds

58
Q

Frequency theory

A

the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, enabling us to sense its pitch

Explains how we sense high pitches & low pitches

59
Q

Smell

A

olfaction

60
Q

Taste

A

gustation

61
Q

Skin senses

A

somesthetic senses

62
Q

Balance

A

vestibular sense

63
Q

Movement

A

kinesthetic sense

64
Q

Chemical senses (chemoreception)

A

smell and taste together

65
Q

Kinesthesia

A

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

66
Q

Vestibular Sense

A

the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance

67
Q

Nociceptors

A

sensory receptors that enable the perception of pain in response to potentially harmful stimuli

68
Q

Visceral pain

A

internal organs

69
Q

Referred pain

A

surface of the body

70
Q

Somatic pain

A

skin, joints, muscles, tendons

71
Q

Gate Control Theory

A

Theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain

72
Q

Sensory Interaction

A

The principles that one sense may influence another

Like when the smell of food influences its taste

73
Q

McGurk Effect

A

interaction with vision and hearing

Illusion where the auditory component of one sound is paired with the visual component of another sound leading to a third sound

74
Q

Synesthesia

A

When one sense is activated, another unrelated sense is activated at the same time

Ex. hearing music, but also sensing the sound as swirls or patterns of color

75
Q

Sleep

A

natural loss of consciousness

76
Q

Circadian Rhythm

A

Our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24 hour cycle

77
Q

Stage One (NREM 1)

A

Lightest level of sleep
Lasts for 5-10 minutes
May experience hypnagogic sensations
Pulse slows and muscles relax

78
Q

hypnagogic sensations

A

sensory experiences that occur without a sensory stimulus

79
Q

Stage Two (NREM 2)

A

Last approximately 20 minutes
Brain produces very short periods of rapid, rhythmic brain activity called sleep spindles
Body temperature begins dropping and heart starts slowing down

80
Q

sleep spindles

A

very short periods of rapid, rhythmic brain activity

81
Q

Stage Three (NREM 3)

A

Lasts for about 30 minutes
Beginning of deep sleep with slow delta waves
Most difficult to wake up during this stage
Restorative phase of sleep
Boosts immune system, repairs muscle and tissues, stimulates growth
Talking, bedwetting, and sleepwalking occur in this stage

82
Q

Stage Four (REM Sleep)

A

REM (Rapid Eye Movement): your eyes jerk quickly in different directions, blood pressure increases, and breathing becomes fast, irregular, and shallow
Each REM stage lasts up to an hour
Important role in learning and memory function
Your brain processes information from the day before so it can be stored in your memory
Dreaming takes place in this stage

83
Q

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

A

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm

interprets the information & signals the pineal gland to secrete melatonin - the sleep hormone - into the bloodstream

84
Q

Insomnia

A

Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
Can last for one night or for years
Can be caused by anxiety, stress, depression, caffeine, nicotine

85
Q

Sleep Apnea

A

Person has trouble breathing while sleeping
10-15 seconds of breathlessness
Most common symptom = snoring
Associated with obesity
Causes: enlarged tonsils, infections to middle ear and throat

86
Q

Narcolepsy

A

Characterized by uncontrolled sleep attacks
May fall directly into REM sleep throughout the day
Usually lasts less than a couple minutes
Odd dreams and sleep patterns
Prone to accidents

87
Q

Nightmares

A

Frightening dreams
Vivid/movie-like memory of dreams
Occurs during REM sleep
Active brain during this

88
Q

Night Terrors

A

Occurs mostly in children
Occurs during Stage 3 sleep
No memory of night terrors
Symptoms: screaming, sweating, rapid heart rate, confusion

89
Q

Sleepwalking

A

Walking or carrying out behaviors while asleep
No memory of doing so
Mostly occurs in children

90
Q

Dreams

A

A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind

91
Q

The Interpretation of Dream (Wish-fulfillment theory)

A

Sigmund Freud
Lacks empirical evidence
Believes that dreams were the key to understanding our inner conflicts
Wish fulfillment: to satisfy our wishes that we couldn’t have when we were awake

92
Q

Manifest Content

A

the symbolic remembered story line of a dream

93
Q

Latent Content

A

the underlying meaning of the dream

94
Q

Information Processing Theory

A

Dreams are the brain’s attempts to make sense of what we encounter during the day

95
Q

Physiological Function Theory

A

May help develop and preserve neural pathways

96
Q

Activation-Synthesis Theory

A

REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories which our sleeping brain weaves into stories

97
Q

Cognitive Development Theory

A

Dream content reflects dreamers’ level of cognitive development

AP Psychology (9 decks)

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