Unit 3 AOS 2 Flashcards
(160 cards)
1
Q
Define learning
A
relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience.
2
Q
What sorts of learning are there (4)
A
intentional, unintentional, passive, active
3
Q
Define memory
A
an active information processing system that encodes, stores and recovers information
4
Q
Define classical conditioning
A
a form of learning in which a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit a reflexive response by repeated association with a stimulus that automatically elicits the reflexive response.
5
Q
Types of responses elicited in classical conditioning
A
reflexive/involuntary
6
Q
Role of learner in classical conditioning
A
passive
7
Q
Extinction (classical) definition
A
when a conditioned response no longer occurs because the conditioned stimulus is presented several times without the unconditioned stimulus.
8
Q
Spontaneous recovery definition
A
the reappearance of an extinguished response after a rest period
9
Q
Stimulus generalisation definition
A
when a response is elicited to a stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus.
10
Q
Stimulus discrimination definition
A
when an individual learns to respond to the conditioned stimulus only (not to other similar stimuli)
11
Q
Ethical principles that little Albert breached
A
informed consent, voluntary participation, no lasting physical or psychological harm, withdrawal rights, confidentiality, deception, debriefing,
12
Q
Define operant conditioning
A
a learning process in which the likelihood of a behaviour occurring is determined by the consequence of that behaviour.
13
Q
Define operant
A
any behaviour that generates consequences
14
Q
Define antecedent (operant conditioning)
A
a stimulus that is presented before a behaviour that results in a behaviour being elicited
15
Q
Define behaviour (operant conditioning)
A
the voluntary behaviour by the individual that occurs due to the antecedent stimulus
16
Q
Define consequence (operant conditioning)
A
positive or negative outcome of behaviour
17
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Types of consequences in operant conditioning
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positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, response cost (negative punishment)
18
Q
Nature of response in operant conditioning
A
voluntary
19
Q
Role of learner in operant conditioning
A
active
20
Q
Define reinforcement
A
strengthening of a response or behaviour
21
Q
Two types of reinforcement
A
positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement
22
Q
Define positive reinforcement
A
the addition of a pleasant or satisfying stimulus in order to strengthen a desired response or behaviour.
23
Q
Example of positive reinforcement
A
receiving good grade after doing homework
24
Q
Define negative reinforcement
A
the removal or prevention of an aversive or unpleasant stimulus in order to strengthen a desired response or behaviour.
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Examples of negative reinforcement
taking medicine to remove headache
26
Define punishment
weakening of a response or behaviour
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Two types of punishment
positive punishment, response cost (negative punishment)
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Define positive punishment
the addition of an aversive or unpleasant stimulus in order to weaken an undesired response or behaviour.
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Example of positive punishment
punching someone to make them stop annoying you?
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Define response cost
the removal of a pleasant or desirable stimulus in order to weaken or decrease an undesired response or behaviour.
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Examples of response cost
going to jail, receiving a fine, being grounded, having phone confiscated
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Negative effects of the use of punishment
risk of causing serious harm, inducing fear or hostility, failure to learn the correct response in a particular situation
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Factors that influence the effectiveness of reinforcement
reinforcer must be presented after the response, reinforcer should be presented as close in time as possible to the desired response, reinforcer must have a pleasing or satisfying consequence.
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Factors that influence the effectiveness of punishment
punishment should be presented as close in time as possible to the desired response, punishment must be consistent in order to prevent the response/behaviour
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Define acquisition (operant)
the establishment of a response through reinforcement
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Define extinction (operant)
the gradual decrease in strength or rate of a learned response following a consistent non-reinforcement of the response
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Define stimulus generalisation (operant)
eliciting the conditioned response to a stimulus that is similar to the antecedent
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Define stimulus discrimination (operant)
eliciting the conditioned response only in the presence of a specific antecedent and not in the presence of similar stimuli
39
Define observational learning
learning process in which the learner uses observation of another individual’s (model) actions and their consequences to guide their future actions.
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What is observational learning also known as
social learning theory, vicarious conditioning
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Define vicarious
experienced or felt by watching, hearing about, or reading about someone else rather than by doing.
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Basis of observational learning
that the learner does not have to be the one directly receiving punishment/rewards in order to be conditioned as they observe the consequences happening to someone else and therefore experience them vicariously
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What is vicarious reinforcement
it increases the likelihood of the observer behaving in a similar way after watching a model’s behaviour be reinforced.
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What is vicarious punishment
the likelihood of an observer performing a particular behaviour decreases after having seen a model’s behaviour being punished
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Name of researcher on observation learning
Albert Bandura
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Name the five elements of observational learning
attention, retention, reproduction, motivation, reinforcement
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Define attention (observational learning)
learner actively watches/observes the model
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Characteristics of models that make us more likely to observe/imitate them in observational learning
if they are perceived to have a high status, there are perceived similarities between the model and the observer, the model in known or familiar to the observer, the model’s behaviour is visible and stands out to the observer
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Define retention in social learning
the ability to remember and form a mental representation of the model’s behaviour
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What must the learner have in order for retention to be successful
ability to remember
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Define reproduction in social learning
the learner has the mental and physical ability to perform the behaviour
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What must the learner have in order for reproduction to be successful
capability to imitate behaviour i.e. cognitive and motor skills
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Define motivation in social learning
the learner must want to or have a desire to imitate the behaviour
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Define reinforcement in social learning
a positive outcome means the learner is more likely to repeat the behaviour
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Types of reinforcement for observational learning
vicarious reinforcement, external reinforcement, internal reinforcement
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Important thing to remember about memory
say we have ‘memory systems’ rather than we have ‘a memory’
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What are the three processes involved in memory
encoding, storage, retrieval
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Define encoding
the process of converting information into a usable form that can be properly stored and represented in the memory system. (converting information into electro-chemical codes [memory traces] )
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Define storage
the retention of information over time.
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Define retrieval
the process of locating and recovering the stored information from memory so that we are consciously aware of it. Getting information out of storage relies on relevant cues.
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Name of memory model
Atkinson-Shiffrin’s Multi-store model of memory
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What is the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory
a model that describes three distinct stores of memory (sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory) that operate simultaneously and interact with each other.
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What are the three stores of memory
sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory
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Define sensory memory
memory store that stores that receives the information about our senses
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Duration of sensory memory
relatively short
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Capacity of sensory memory
unlimited
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Types of sensory memory
echoic and iconic
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What is iconic memory
sensory register for visual information
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What is the duration of iconic memory
0.2-0.4 seconds
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What is echoic memory
sensory register for auditory information
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What is the duration of echoic memory
3-4 seconds
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Why is duration of echoic memory longer than iconic
in order to comprehend many sounds particularly those in language
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What is short term memory also known as
working memory
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Define short term memory
holds all the information you are consciously thinking about at any moment of time
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How does information enter short term memory
enter from sensory memory or is retrieved from long term memory
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Is information an exact replica in STM
no, it is an encoding
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What is the capacity of short term memory
7 +/- 2 items
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What is the duration of short term memory
12 to 30 seconds
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What happens at approx. 18 seconds in short term memory
disappears almost entirely unless renewed in some way
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What is an experiment showing STM duration
Margaret and Lloyd peterson (backwards exponential shape of graph)
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Define chunking
grouping separate items of information to form a larger information unit (chunk) that can be remembered as a single unit.
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What is chunking used for
to increase the capacity of STM
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How to increase duration of STM
rehearsal
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Define maintenance rehearsal
the simple repetition of information over and over again so that it can be retained in short-term memory
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What happens when you stop maintenance rehearsal
memory is lost
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Define elaborative rehearsal
involves focusing on the meaning of information and linking this meaning with information already in your long-term memory or other information in your short term memory
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Define long term memory
the relatively permanent memory system that holds vast amounts of information for a long period of time
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What is the duration of long term memory
relatively permanent
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What is the capacity of long term memory
unlimited
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What are the types of long term memory
procedural (implicit), declarative (explicit) - which is made up of semantic and episodic memory
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Thing to remember about the types of long term memory
not Atkinson-Shiffrin
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Define procedural memory (implicit)
the memory of actions and skills that have been learned previously
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Define declarative (explicit) memory
memory of specific facts or events that can be brought consciously to mind and usually communicated
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What are the two types of declarative memory
semantic, episodic
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Define episodic memory
the declarative memory system that stores autobiographical events and life experiences
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Define semantic memory
the declarative memory system that stores factual knowledge about the world
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Why does long term memory need to be organised
to assist with the storage and retrieval of information
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What are the four measures of retention
recall, recognition, relearning, reconstruction
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What is the most sensitive measure of retention
relearning
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What is the least sensitive measure of retention
recall
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Define recall
retrieving information stored in long term memory using few or no cues for assistance
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What are the types of recall
free recall, serial recall, cued recall
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Define free recall
reproducing (retrieving) information stored in long term memory in no particular order using no cues
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Define serial recall
reproducing (retrieving) information stored in long term memory in a specific order or sequence with no cues
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Define cued recall
reproducing (retrieving) information stored in long term memory through the use of specific prompts (cues).
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Define recognition
identifying the correct information from a list of possible alternatives
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Define relearning
learning information again that has been previously learned and stored in long term memory
108
What is methods of savings
when you measure the amount of information retained in long term memory from the previous learning
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Define savings score
the percentage of information retained from original learning
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Saving’s score formula
T1-T2/T1 *100
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Define reconstruction
remembering past events and features of past events you have stored in LTM and putting them together during memory recall
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Define forgetting
the inability to retrieve previously stored information
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Are you more likely to forget procedural or declarative memories
declarative
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Why are context and state dependent cues effective
the encoding specificity principle
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Define encoding specificity principle
the more closely the retrieval cues match the original learning conditions, the more likely it is that the information will be recalled.
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Define context dependent cues
the place/setting in which a memory acts as a retrieval cue for the desired information
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Define state dependent cues
the physiological or psychological condition in which a memory was made acts as a retrieval cue for the desired information.
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What memories are most likely to be remembered
emotional memories, interconnected, frequently used, first and last words
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Serial position effect
how well words are remembered depends on where they are located on a list
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Define primacy effect
superior recall of items at the beginning of the list as they have the best chance to encode them into LTM
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Define recency effect
superior recall of items at the end of a list due to being in STM
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Hippocampus role in memory
formation of memory - encoding + transferring, declarative memories
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Amygdala role in memory
encoding and storage of memories that have a significant emotional component
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Removal of hippocampus effects
can remember procedural memories but not being taught them
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Removal of amygdala effects
can’t modulate appropriate emotional responses
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Cerebral cortex roles
processing ST memories, linking to other memories
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Consolidation theory
30 minutes, memory trace formed, can’t be disrupted
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Who identified identity trace
Kandel
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Define neural pathways
connections between neurons where information is transmitted.
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Are neural pathways fixed
no
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What happens in learning to neurons
neurons form new connections with each other or existing connections are strengthened.
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What neurotransmitters are involved in learning
glutamate, dopamine
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What physical changes arise as a result of learning
dendritic spines of post-synaptic neuron develop more receptor sites, more sprouts (neurotransmitters increased), more synaptic connections are formed
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What three changes occur during strengthening of neural pathways
change in structure, function and synapse
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Change in function in strengthening of neural pathways
an increase in the amount of the neurotransmitter produced and released by the neurons.
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Change in structure in strengthening of neural pathways
‘branches’ of axons and dendrites increase in number as they become ‘bushier’ through the growth of smaller ‘offshoots’ (dendritic spines) thereby strengthening the connections between the neurons.
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Change in synapse in strengthening of neural pathways
new synaptic connections form, further strengthening the connections between the neurons.
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Define synaptogenesis
the process by which synapses are formed between neurons
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Define neural plasticity
the brain’s ability to reorganise neural pathways throughout the lifespan as a result of experience
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Two types of neural plasticity
adaptive plasticity, developmental plasticity
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Five stages of neuronal development
proliferation, migration, circuit formation, circuit pruning, myelination
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Define adaptive plasticity
changes occurring in the brain’s neural structure to enable adjustment to experience, to compensate for the lost function and/or to maximise remaining functions in the event of brain damage.
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When does adaptive plasticity occur
any time in the lifespan
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Why do children heal better
more quick and successful in the earlier years, especially during infancy and early childhood
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What does LTP stand for
long term potentiation
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Define long-term potentiation
long-term potentiation is the long-lasting strengthening of synaptic connections of neurons through high frequency stimulation of the synaptic pathway, resulting in the enhanced functioning of neurons
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What LTP is useful for
decreases the likelihood of forgetting, allows us to strengthen important/wanted/useful memories.
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What does LTD stand for
long term depression
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Define long term depression
is the weakening of synaptic connections between neurons that results from a lack of stimulation or prolonged low level stimulation of a neural pathway
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What does LTD do
less efficient synaptic transmission, loss or weakening of communication between neurons, post-synaptic neuron becomes less responsive to the neurotransmitters, increases likelihood of forgetting, allows us to prune or eliminate useless/unimportant memories
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Why do we need LTD
allows us to adjust/edit/correct our thinking if problem solving or our movements, provides basis for blocking or eliminating inappropriate or unwanted feelings or behaviours
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Define neurotransmitters
chemicals that are released by a neuron in order to send a message to another neuron
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Define neurohormones
chemicals that are synthesised within a neuron and released into the bloodstream and act on distant sites.
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Define hormones
chemicals that are produced within a gland and are released into the bloodstream and act on distant sites.
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Differences between neurotransmitters and neurohormones
where acts on, form of message, neurotransmitters travel shorter distances, effect of neurotransmitters is quicker
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Role of glutamate
excitatory neurotransmitter, high speed neural transmission and is necessary for memory and learning.
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Glutamate’s role in LTP
during LTP, there is an increase in the amount of glutamate produced and released by the pre-synaptic neuron. It binds neurons together through neural plasticity (therefore allows memories to form), and the connections become more efficient. Without glutamate, it would be as if every experience was new to us.
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Relationships between glutamate and LTD
decreased production and decreased release of glutamate is associated with LTD
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What is a receptor site for glutamate
NMDA
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How does adrenaline enhance memory
important for encoding process of emotion memories
