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psych > Unit 3- AOS 2: How do people learn and remember? > Flashcards

Unit 3- AOS 2: How do people learn and remember? Flashcards

How do people learn and remember? (122 cards)

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1
Q

What is learning?

A

Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge or skills resulting from experience; there are many approaches.

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2
Q

What is a behaviorist approach?

A

A behaviorist approach is an approach to learning that states that behaviors are learned through interactions with the environment.

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3
Q

What is conditioning?

A

Conditioning is the learning process by which an organism becomes dependent on an event occurring in its environment.

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4
Q

What is a stimulus?

A

A stimulus is an environment that triggers a response from an organism.

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5
Q

What is a response?

A

A response is a behavioral reaction to a stimulus

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6
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

Classic conditioning is a simple form of learning that occurs through repeated associations between two stimuli to produce a conditioned response.

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7
Q

Use an example to distinguish between a stimulus and a response

A

A stimulus is an environment that triggers a response from an organism whereas a response is an organism’s behavioral reaction to a stimulus.

For example, in Pavlov’s experiment the stimulus would be food being presented and response would be the dog salivating.

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8
Q

Outline Pavlov’s dog experiment that demonstrated classical conditioning.

A

Pavlov presented food (UCS) to a dog, causing salivation (UCR). He then repeatedly paired a bell (NS) with the food.

Eventually, the bell (CS) alone triggered salivation (CR), demonstrating classical conditioning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a natural response.

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9
Q

What are the three phases of the three-phase process of classical conditioning?

A

Before conditioning, during conditioning and after conditioning

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10
Q

What is before conditiong?

A

-The first stage of classical conditioning; at this stage no learning has occurred.

-In this phase there is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), which is consistently produces a naturally occurring automatic response.

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11
Q

What is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?

A

A stimulus that consistently produces a naturally occurring, automatic response.

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12
Q

What is an unconditioned response (UCR)?

A

A response that occurs automatically/ involuntarily when the unconditioned stimulus is presented.

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13
Q

What is a neutral stimulus (NS)?

A

In the before conditioning phase there is also a neutral stimulus. A neutral stimulus is a stimulus (prior to conditioning) that doesn’t produce a response.

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14
Q

What is during conditioning?

A

-The second phase of classical conditioning, in which learning occurs through association.

-It is the phase where the two stimuli are associated or paired

-The neutral stimulus is usually presented and immediately followed by the unconditioned stimulus, or they are presented simultaneously.

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15
Q

What is acquisition?

A

The process during which an organism learns to associate two events (the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus)

-The associator of the neutral stimulus (NS) with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

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16
Q

What is after conditioning?

A

The final stage of classical conditioning, in which the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS). Through repeated association in the previous stage, the neutral stimulus on its own triggers the same unconditioned response.

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17
Q

What is conditioned stimulus (CS)?

A

A stimulus that was previously neutral but now, as a result associations with the unconditioned stimulus, produces a conditioned response.

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18
Q

What is a conditioned response (CR)?

A

A learned behavior that is similar to the unconditioned response and is now triggered by the conditioned stimulus as a result of conditioning.

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19
Q

What is operant conditioning?

A

A learning process in which the likelihood of a voluntary behavior occurring is determined by its consequences. It is an active learning process.

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20
Q

What is the three-phase model of operant conditioning ?

A

Antecedent: Any environmental stimulus that triggers and action.

Behavior: Any action

Consequence: Something that make the behavior more or less likely to occur again.

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21
Q

What is an antecedent (Operant Conditioning)?

A

An environmental stimulus that triggers an action.

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22
Q

What is behavior (Operant Conditioning)?

A

Any observable action by an organism.

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23
Q

What is a consequence (Operant Conditioning)?

A

Something that makes a behavior more or less likely to occur again.

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24
Q

What are the two main consequences in operant conditioning?

A

Reinforcement and Punishment

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25
What is reinforcement?
A stimulus from the environment that increase the likelihood of a response occurring in the future.
26
What is positive reinforcement?
When a behavior is followed by adding a desirable stimulus, increasing the likelihood of the behavior occurring again.
27
What is negative reinforcement?
When a behavior is followed by the removal of an undesirable stimulus, increasing the likelihood of the behavior occurring again.
28
What is punishment?
A stimulus from the environment that decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.
29
What is positive punishment?
When a behavior is followed by adding an undesirable stimulus, decreasing the likelihood of the behavior occurring again.
30
What is a negative punishment?
When a behavior is followed by the removal of a desirable stimulus, decreasing the likelihood of the behavior occurring again.
31
What is a learner?
The individual who observes, remembers and initiates the actions of the model.
32
What is the model?
The live, pre-recorded or symbolic person being observed.
33
What is observational learning?
Is a type of social learning that occurs when a learner observes a model's actions and their consequences to guide their future actions.
34
What is the social- cognitive approach?
When individuals process, remember and learn information in social contexts to explain and predict their behavior and that of others.
35
What is attention (observational learning)?
The first step in observational learning, when the learner actively watches the model's behavior and the consequences.
36
What is retention (observational learning)?
The second stage in observational learning, when the learner stores (retains) a mental representation of the model's behavior.
37
What is reproduction (observational learning)?
The third stage in observational learning , when a learner's physical and mental capabilities enable them to perform the model's behavior.
38
What is motivation (observational learning)?
In observational learning, the learner's desire to perform the model's behavior.
39
What is reinforcement (observational learning?
Receiving a reward or desirable factor that increases the likelihood that the learner will reproduce the behavior in the future.
40
What are the stages of observational learning?
Attention, Retention, Motivation, Reproduction,and Reinforcement
41
Explain why observational learning is identified as a method of social learning
Because observational learning emphasizes the importance of the environment, or 'social context' in which learning occurs. In other words, people learn from those around them.
42
Why is the attention stage of observational learning considered to involve a cognitive process
This is because in the attention stage of observational learning involves select attention, encoding of information and other cognitive functions that relate to the learning process.
43
In observational learning, why is it important to follow the order of the stages?
It is important to follow the order of the stages in the case of observational learning because each stage builds upon the previous one. If a stage is skipped or disrupted the learning might not be as effective. You can't reproduce behavior if you didn’t pay attention, and retain it and you won't be able to perform it without motivation.
44
Who are the Indigenous?
First Australians and First Peoples of an country
45
Who are the Aboriginal and Torres Strain Islander peoples
The Australian Indigenous population, which includes Aboriginal peoples, Torres Strait Islanders peoples and people who have both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander heritage; the term 'Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People' encompasses all three.
46
What does community mean?
A group of people who live in the same location or who share an interest or characteristic in common, and who interact or have the potential to interact.
47
What are the ways of knowing?
Methods through which knowledge becomes apparent to us.
48
Who are the First Nations?
Indigenous people of Australia; or First Peoples
49
What is Connection to Country?
Indigenous ways of knowing are known to be rooted with deep respect for the ecology and the importance of the connected relationship with land.
50
What are the 8 ways?
1.Story sharing: learning/knowing through narrative 2.Learning Maps: visualizing and mapping processes 3.Non-verbal: See, think, act, create, move without words. 4.Symbols and Images: understanding concepts through art and metaphor 5.Land Links: Place-based learning 6.Non-linear: Indirect, innovative and interdisciplinary approaches 7.Deconstruct/ Reconstruct: modelling and scaffolding 8.Community links: connecting learning to local values and needs
51
What does narrative mean?
A story which in a cultural context may be delivered in a variety of ways including performance, song and dance.
52
What does yarn mean?
An Indigenous system of learning that involves continually sharing stories.
53
What does Learning Maps mean?
Images or visuals used to map out process for learners.
54
What does kinesthetic mean?
To do with body movement or sensation
55
What is place-based learning?
Learning drawn from the landscape with profound connections to ancestral and personal relationships with place.
56
What is memory?
An information processing system that actively receives, organizes, stores and recovers information
57
What is encoding?
Converting sensory information into a useable form that can be processed by the brain.
58
What is storage (memory)?
Retaining information over time.
59
What is retrieval (memory)?
Accessing information that has previously been stored.
60
Why is memory considered to be an active process ?
Because it involves purposeful coding, storage and recall of sensory information.
61
What is role in memory?
The function of a memory store.
62
What is capacity in memory ?
The amount of information held within a memory store.
63
What is duration in memory?
The length of time information is held within a memory store.
64
What is sensory memory?
A memory store the receives an unlimited amount of incoming sensory information for a brief time.
65
What is the function of sensory memory?
Sensory memory filters out any unnecessary information, thus preventing us from becoming overwhelmed by the vast amount of sensory information.
66
What is the capacity of sensory memory?
Sensory memory has an unlimited capacity.
67
What is the duration of sensory memory?
Sensory memory holds information for 0.2-4 seconds.
68
What is raw information?
It is exactly the sensory memory that is being received
69
What happens if information is not attended to in sensory memory ?
If information is not attended to in sensory memory, it is likely to be lost due to the brief duration of sensory storage, lack of encoding into short-term memory, and natural decay processes.
70
What is short-term memory?
A memory store that has limited capacity of short duration, unless the information is renewed.
71
What is the function of short-term memory?
Once information has entered the short-term memory, individuals can actively manipulate encoded information while we complete everyday tasks. This occurs through receiving and integrating information from both sensory and long-term memory.
72
What is the capacity of short-term memory?
Short-term memory has a smaller capacity than sensory memory or long-term memory, holding a limited amount of information. 7 +- 2 or 5-9 items
73
What is the duration of short-term memory?
The duration of short-term memory is limited compared to sensory memory and long-term memory, lasting for 12-30 seconds. If the information is not manipulated in some way, it will fade from short-term memory and be permanently lost.
74
What is displacement?
Adding new single items to to short-term memory by pushing out old items.
75
What is decay?
The fading away of information in short-term memory when not maintained by rehearsal.
76
What is rehearsal?
The conscious manipulation of information to keep it in short-term memory for longer or transfer it to long-term memory.
77
Explain why short term memory is considered to be the seat of control
Because in short-term memory , information is conscious and is actively manipulated so that we can retain the information for long enough to use it. It is also where all conscious mental processes such as decision-making or perception orginates.
78
What is long-term memory?
Memory that is relatively permanent and holds huge amounts of information for a long time, possible lifelong.
79
What does semantic mean?
Relates to meaning.
80
What is the capacity of long term memory?
The capacity of long-term memory is unlimited , it can store a lifetime of memories.
81
What is explicit memory?
Information that can be consciously retrieved and stated such as 'known facts'
82
What is a declarative memory?
An explicit long-term memory of specific facts and events, most of which can be stated or 'declared'
83
What is semantic memory?
The declarative memory of facts or knowledge about the world.
84
What is episodic memory?
The declarative memory of personally experienced events.
85
What are the different types of memories that are considered explicit
Semantic and Episodic Memory
86
What is implicit memory?
Memory not requiring conscious retrieval, such as 'how to' skills.
87
What are some types of implicit memory?
Procedural memory and conditioned emotional response
88
What is the cerebral cortex?
A thin, outer layer of the brain; involved in complex mental abilities , sensory processing, voluntary movements and storage of explicit memory.
89
What is the hippocampus?
A structure in the temporal midbrain; involved in formation of long term explicit memories and their transfer to the cerebral cortex for storage.
90
What does consolidation mean?
The process by which a temporary memory is transformed into a more stable, long-lasting form.
91
What are the roles of the hippocampus?
First the hippocampus encodes, consolidates and retrieved explicit memories. The hippocampus also transfers newly encoded explicit memories to relevant parts of the brain for permanent long-term storage. The hippocampus also interacts with the amygdala to link emotions to explicit memories.
92
What is the amygdala?
A structure located deep in the temporal midbrain; involved in emotional reactions and formation of emotional memories particularly relating to fear.
93
What is the neocortex?
The top layer of the cerebral cortex that is involved in high-order mental processes such as language, attention and memory.
94
What is the role of the neocortex?
The neocortex is the part of the brain that actually stores explicit memories for a long time. Memories are widely distributed throughout the cortex and they are usually permanently stored in the areas where sensory input was first processed.
95
How does the hippocampus interact with the amygdala?
The hippocampus interacts with the amygdala to link emotions to explicit memories. The hippocampus encode the explicit memories of the event, whereas the amygdala encodes the emotions related to the event.
96
What is the basal ganglia?
The basal ganglia are a group of structures deep within the cerebral hemispheres; involved in motor movement , procedural memory ,learning and routine behaviors.
97
What is the cerebellum?
A cauliflower-shaped structure at the base of the brain; coordinated timing and fluency if movements; encodes and temporarily stores implicit memories of simple conditioned reflexes.
98
What are the roles of the cerebellum?
Plays a role in the encoding and temporary storage of implicit procedural memories for motor skills, more specifically those created by classical conditioning. The cerebellum also has a role in coordinating fine muscle movements and regulating posture and balance.
99
What is autobiographical memory?
A memory system consisting of episodes recollected from an individual's life, based on a combination of episodic and semantic memories.
100
What is reconstruction?
The combining of stored information with other available information to form what is believed to be a more coherent , complete or accurate memory.
101
What is episodic future thinking?
Projecting yourself forwards in time to pre-experience an event that might happen in your personal future.
102
What is mental time travel?
The capacity to mentally reconstruct past personal events and imagine possible future scenarios.
103
What is amnesia?
A permeant, or temporary , complete loss of memory.
104
What is Alzheimer's disease?
A neurodegenerative disease characterized by the progressive deterioration of brain neurons causing memory loss, decline in cognitive skills and personality change.
105
What is dementia?
A collection of symptoms that are caused by disorders affecting the brain.
106
What is a brain scan?
An examination of the brain that shows brain activity and tissues that cannot be detected otherwise
107
What are lesions?
A damaged or abnormal area of the brain that may appear like a scar or wound.
108
What are symptoms of Alzheimer's disease?
Gradual severe memory loss, confusion, impaired attention, disordered thinking , a decline in social skills and personality changes.
109
When does amyloid plaque occur?
Occurs when beta-amyloid proteins build up. This forms abnormal plaques between the synapses of the neurons, and so interferes with neural communication.
110
When does neurofibrillary tangle occur?
Occurs when protein builds up inside the neuron and are associated with cell death. This interferes with the flow of information within and between neurons, disrupting communication.
111
What is brain atrophy?
The loss of neurons within the brain.
112
What is anterograde amnesia?
The inability to form new explicit long-term memories after an amnesia-causing event. This is caused when the hippocampus is affected by atrophy causing neurons to die or be damaged.
113
What is retrograde amnesia?
The inability to retrieve previously stored memories after an amnesia-causing event.
114
What is aphantasia?
The inability to visualize imagery .
115
Outline three symptoms of aphantasia?
-Struggle to remember or 'relive' autobiographical events. -Having difficulty imagining future or hypothetical events -Have problems with factual memory
116
What are mnemonics?
Any technique used for improving or enhancing memory.
117
What is written culture?
A culture in which stories and information are shared and preserved through the processes of reading and writing.
118
What is the method of loci?
A mnemonic system that commits a familiar location or sequence of locations to memory, then visually links them with information that needs to be recalled.
119
What are acronyms?
An abbreviation formed from the first letter of each word and pronounced as a single word.
120
What are acrostics?
A phrase (or poem) in which the letter if each word functions as a cue to help with recall.
121
What is meant by 'dreaming'?
A guide to life and living; Dreaming is not just stories , it is arts, songs, dance ; it is written into the land itself.
122
What are songlines?
One of many sung narrative of the landscape that weave across Country and enable significant place in Aboriginal Dreaming to be know.

psych (4 decks)

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