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Psychology > Unit 3: AOS 2 - How do people learn and remember? > Flashcards

Unit 3: AOS 2 - How do people learn and remember? Flashcards

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1
Q

What is Classical Conditioning?

A

A process of learning through the involuntary association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus that results in a conditioned response.

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2
Q

What are the three phases of Classical Conditioning?

A
  1. before conditioning
  2. during conditioning
  3. after conditioning
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3
Q

What happens in before conditioning?

A

The neutral stimulus produces no significant response.

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4
Q

What happens in during conditioning?

A
  • The neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus, producing the unconditioned response.
  • The neutral stimulus is to be presented half a second (0.5) before the unconditioned stimulus.
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5
Q

What happens in after conditioning?

A

The neutral stimulus is now referred to as the conditioned stimulus, and its presentation alone will produce a conditioned response.

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6
Q

What is Operant Conditioning?

A
  • A three-phase learning process that involves an antecedent, a behavior and a consequence. Whereby the consequence of a behaviour determines the likelihood that it will reoccur.
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7
Q

What are the 3 phases of Operant Conditioning (ABC)?

A

A - Antecedent
B - Behaviour
C - Consequence

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8
Q

Define antecedent?

A

The antecedent is the stimulus or event that precedes and often elicits a particular behaviour.

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9
Q

Define behaviour?

A

The voluntary actions that occur in the presence of the antecedent.

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10
Q

Define consequence?

A

The outcome of the behaviour, which determines the likelihood that it will occur again.

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11
Q

Define reinforcement?

A

Reinforcement refers to a consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.

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12
Q

Define positive reinforcement?

A

Positive reinforcement is the addition of a desirable stimulus, which increases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.

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13
Q

Define negative reinforcement?

A

Negative reinforcement is the removal of an undesirable stimulus, which increases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.

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14
Q

Define punishment?

A

Punishment refers to the consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.

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15
Q

Define positive punishment?

A

Positive punishment is the the addition of an undesirable stimulus, which in turn decreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.

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16
Q

Define negative punishment?

A

Negative punishment is the removal of a desirable stimulus, which in turn decreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.

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17
Q

What are the differences between Classical and Operant conditioning?

A
  • Classical Conditioning involves involuntary, reflexive responses that are automatically elicited by a stimulus.
  • Whereas, Operant Conditioning involves voluntary responses and they are generally influenced by their consequences and not by a stimulus.
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18
Q

What does Vicarious mean?

A

Vicarious involves learning through observation of the consequences of other people’s actions.

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19
Q

What is Vicarious Conditioning?

A

Vicarious Conditioning is when an individual observes a model displaying behaviour that is either reinforced or punished, and this then affects if the individual will act in the same way, in a modified way or refrain from acting in the same way at all.

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20
Q

What is Observational Learning?

A

It is a process of learning that involves watching the behavior of a model and the consequence of that behaviour.

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21
Q

What are the 5 stages of Observational Learning?

A
  1. Attention
  2. Retention
  3. Reproduction
  4. Motivation
  5. Reinforcement
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22
Q

What happens in the attention stage?

A

During the attention phase, there is an active focus on the model’s behaviour and the consequences of the behaviour.

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23
Q

What happens in the retention stage?

A

During the retention phase, the learner creates a mental representation to remember the model’s demonstrated behaviour.

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24
Q

What happens in the reproduction stage?

A

During the reproduction phase, the learner must have the physical and mental capability to successfully reproduce the behavior.

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25
What happens in the motivation stage?
During the motivation phase, individuals must desire to perform the behaviour.
26
What happens in the reinforcement stage?
During the reinforcement phase, the individual receives a positive consequence for the behaviour, this makes them more likely to reproduce the behaviour again in the future.
27
What does encoding mean?
Encoding involves converting raw information into a useful form, which can be stored in the brain.
28
What is the Atkinson Shiffrin Model of Memory?
The Atkinson Shiffrin Model of Memory is the multi-store model of memory that outlines the three seperate stores of memory (sensory, short term and long term).
29
What is the function of Sensory memory?
Sensory memory stores raw information detected by the senses - The capacity is unlimited information. - The duration is 0.2 to 4 seconds. - Example: the scent of your deodorant when it is sprayed.
30
What is the function of Short-term memory?
Short-term memory holds a limited amount of information that is consciously being attended to and actively manipulated. Stores information which has been retrieved from LTM and thus be in your conscious awareness. - The capacity is 5 to 9 pieces of information. - The duration is 18 to 30 seconds. - Example: thinking about how you felt in your last SAC.
31
What is the function of Long-term memory?
Long-term memory acts as a hard drive for a computer, storing all information from past events as well as knowledge or facts. To be in LTM, they must have been encoded from STM. - The capacity is unlimited information. - The duration is permanent. - Example: Memorizing times tables.
32
What are the strengths of the Atkinson Shiffrin Model of Memory?
- The model distinguishes between the different stores involved in memory. - The model outlines that each memory store has a different capacity and duration.
33
What are the limitations of the Atkinson Shiffrin Model of Memory?
- The model of memory may be considered to be oversimplified. - The model ignores factors, such as motivation and strategy, which can facilitate learning and assist in encoding information from STM to LTM.
34
What are the two types of LTM?
1. Explicit memory (semantic and episodic memory) 2. Implicit memory (procedural and classically conditioned memory)
35
What is explicit memory?
- A type of long-term memory that is consciously retrieved. - These memories can be voluntarily retrieved from LTM and brought into conscious awareness.
36
What is semantic (explicit) memory?
- Involves general knowledge or facts - Memories that can be verbally explained - e.g. knowing that 1+1=2
37
What is semantic (episodic) memory?
- Personal experiences or events - Memories that are unique to each individual - e.g. remembering your first break-up
38
What is implicit memory?
- A type of long-term memory that is unconsciously retrieved. - The memory of 'how' to do something
39
What is procedural (implicit) memory?
- Involves knowing how to carry out tasks that are facilitated by motor skills. - e.g. kicking a soccer ball
40
What is classically conditioned (implicit) memory?
- Involves an involuntary response, such as fear, to a stimulus which has repeatedly been associated with an emotionally arousing stimulus. - Memories are retrieved involuntarily and can be reflexive.
41
Which brain structures are involved in semantic memory?
- Semantic memory is encoded by the amygdala and the hippocampus, and stored by the neocortex.
42
Which brain structures are involved in episodic memory (same as semantic)?
- Episodic memory is encoded by the amygdala and the hippocampus, and stored by the neocortex.
43
Which brain structures are involved in classically conditioned memory?
- Classically conditioned memory is encoded by the amygdala and the hippocampus, and stored by the basal ganglia.
44
Which brain structures are involved in procedural memory?
- Procedural memory is encoded by the cerebellum and the basal ganglia, and stored by the cerebellum.
45
What is the role of the hippocampus in long-term implicit and explicit memories?
- Encodes explicit memories
46
What is the role of the amygdala in long-term implicit and explicit memories?
- processes emotional memories - retrieves explicit memories
47
What is the role of the neocortex in long-term implicit and explicit memories?
- Storage space for explicit memories
48
What is the role of the basal ganglia in long-term implicit and explicit memories?
- Encodes implicit procedural memories.
49
What is the role of the cerebellum in long-term implicit and explicit memories?
- Encodes and stores implicit procedural memories.
50
What is the role of the episodic and semantic memory in retrieving autobiographical events?
Episodic: - Autobiographical events contain episodic components which are more specifically related to the personal experience of the event. - The hippocampus is primarily involved in the retrieval of episodic memories. Semantic: - Autobiographical events contain information that is semantic, such as the date of location of the event. - The frontal and temporal lobes are involved in the retrieval of semantic memories.
51
What is the role of the episodic and semantic memory in constructing possible imagined futures?
- When individuals attempt to mentally construct a possible imagined future, they draw on elements of past experiences from both their semantic and episodic memory. - Brain regions that are involved in the retrieval of autobiographical memories are the hippocampus, frontal and temporal lobes.
52
What is the role of the episodic and semantic memory in people with Alzheimer's and aphantasia?
Alzheimers: - As damage can be associated with the hippocampus, patients with Alzheimer’s disease may struggle to remember semantic and episodic components of personally experienced events. - People with Alzheimer's lack the capacity to draw on episodic and semantic memories in order to plan and construct new future scenarios. Aphantasia: - People with aphantasia struggle to retrieve autobiographical events and construct possible imagined futures due to their inability to create mental imagery. - It is difficult for people with aphantasia to retrieve personally lived experiences as they cannot generate vivid, detailed mental imagery of past autobiographical events from their long-term memory.
53
What is a Mnemonic?
- Devices which aid in the encoding, storage and retrieval of information. - There are two types: Written traditions and Oral traditions.
54
What is an Acronym?
- The first letters of items form a word (e.g. LOL=laugh out loud) - Acronyms link information to words or sounds we already know. - Additionally, the first letter in the acronym acts as a retrieval cue to help bring the targeted information into short-term memory.
55
What is an Acrostic?
- The first letters of items create a phrase, rhyme or poem (e.g. Never-Eat-Soggy-Weetbix is used to remember the order of directions on a compass) - Acrostics link new information to familiar phrases. - Like acronyms, the first letter in the acrostic acts as a retrieval cue to help bring the targeted information into short-term memory.
56
What is the Method of Loci?
- A 5 step device that converts items into mental images and associates them with a familiar place.
57
What are Sung Narratives?
- Stories that share important cultural, ecological and survival information through the use of singing, harmony and rhythm. - Narration and rhythm in Sung narratives can enhance the encoding, transferring and retrieval of vital cultural and survival information.
58
What are Songlines?
- Multimodal performances conducted as a family or community - Explore the travels through Country and spaces in the landscape that record journeys, link important sites and describe ways to live, care and nurture country.
59
What is a Variable?
- Component of the research which will be manipulated and measured in order to test the hypothesis.
60
What are some examples of variables?
Population: the group of people of interest to an experiment. Independent Variable (IV): the variable that is changed to see the effects on the data. Dependent Variable (DV): what we are measuring Controlled Variable: stays the same
61
What is a hypothesis?
- A testable prediction about the relationship between two variables. - e.g. It is hypothesised that the amount of sunlight (IV) will impact the growth of a plant (DV).
62
What are the three types of controlled experiment designs?
1. Within subjects 2. Between subjects 3. Mixed design
63
What is a Within-subjects experiment? One strength and one limitation
- A within-subjects design is when participants complete every experimental condition. - Strength: requires fewer participants, as each participant is involved in multiple groups. - Limitation: Order effects may occur, due to the order in which participants partake in the control conditions.
64
What is a Between-subjects experiment? One strength and one limitation
- A between-subjects design is when individuals are divided into different groups and complete only one experimental condition. - Strength: no order effects can occur. - Limitation: requires more participants as each participant is only in one condition.
65
What is a Mixed design experiment? One strength and one limitation
- A mixed design is when elements of within-subjects and between-subject designs are combined. - Strength: allows multiple experimental conditions to be compared to a control group. - Limitation: can be more costly and time consuming to plan, conduct and then analyze results.

Psychology (3 decks)

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