Unit 3 Chapter 7

Question 1

What is memory?

Answer 1

The process by which we recollect prior experiences and information and skills learned in the past.

Question 2

What are the three kinds of memory?

Answer 2

• Episodic: specific events
• Semantic: facts, words, concepts
• Implicit: practiced skills; learned habits

Question 3

What is encoding in the context of memory?

Answer 3

Translating information into a form in which it can be used.

Question 4

What is the first stage of processing information?

Answer 4

Encoding.

Question 5

What are the types of codes used in encoding?

Answer 5

• Visual codes: mental pictures
• Acoustic codes: auditory code
• Semantic codes: meaning

Question 6

What is the second process of memory?

Answer 6

Storage

Involves the maintenance of encoded information.

Question 7

What are the two types of rehearsal in the storage process?

Answer 7

• Maintenance rehearsal
• Elaborative rehearsal

Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating information, while elaborative rehearsal involves connecting new information to existing knowledge.

Question 8

What are organizational systems in the context of memory?

Answer 8

Methods used to structure and categorize information to aid storage

These systems help in efficiently organizing memories for easier retrieval.

Question 9

What are filing errors in memory?

Answer 9

Mistakes made in the organization of stored information

These errors can lead to difficulties in retrieval.

Question 10

What is the third process of memory?

Answer 10

Retrieval

Involves locating stored information and returning it to conscious thought.

Question 11

What is context-dependent memory?

Answer 11

Memory retrieval that is dependent on the place where information was encoded and stored

This means that being in the same location can trigger the recall of memories.

Question 12

What is state-dependent memory?

Answer 12

Memories retrieved because of the individual’s mood at the time of encoding

This indicates that emotional states can influence memory recall.

Question 13

What does ‘on the tip of the tongue’ refer to?

Answer 13

The feeling of knowing information but having difficulty retrieving it

This phenomenon often occurs when trying to recall a name or word.

Question 14

What are the three stages of memory?

Answer 14

• Sensory Memory
• Short-Term Memory
• Long-Term Memory

These stages represent the flow of information processing in memory systems.

Question 15

What is sensory memory?

Answer 15

Immediate, initial recordings of data that enter through our senses

Sensory memory allows for the brief retention of sensory information.

Question 16

What is iconic memory?

Answer 16

Brief mental pictures

Iconic memory is a type of sensory memory specifically for visual stimuli.

Question 17

Define eidetic memory.

Answer 17

Photographic memory; rare

Eidetic memory allows individuals to recall images with high precision after only a brief exposure.

Question 18

What is echoic memory?

Answer 18

Mental traces of sound; lasts longer than iconic memory

Echoic memory allows for the retention of auditory information for a longer duration than visual information.

Question 19

What is short-term memory often referred to as?

Answer 19

Working memory

Short-term memory is critical for temporarily holding information for processing.

Question 20

How long does short-term memory typically last?

Answer 20

Fades after several seconds

Rehearsal is needed to retain information in short-term memory.

Question 21

What is the primacy effect?

Answer 21

Recall of initial items

The primacy effect is a phenomenon observed in memory recall tasks.

Question 22

What is the recency effect?

Answer 22

Recall of last items

The recency effect occurs when the most recently presented information is remembered better.

Question 23

What is chunking in memory?

Answer 23

Grouping information into larger units

Chunking helps improve the capacity of short-term memory.

Question 24

What does interference refer to in the context of memory?

Answer 24

When new information disrupts the recall of old information

Interference can lead to forgetting in both short-term and long-term memory.

Question 25

What is long-term memory?

Answer 25

Storage of information for an extended period ## Footnote Long-term memory can hold vast amounts of information without a known limit.

Question 26

What is maintenance rehearsal?

Answer 26

Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory ## Footnote Maintenance rehearsal is a basic technique for memorization.

Question 27

Define elaborative rehearsal.

Answer 27

Connecting new information to existing knowledge ## Footnote Elaborative rehearsal leads to better retention than simple repetition.

Question 28

What are schemas?

Answer 28

Mental representations of knowledge ## Footnote Schemas help organize and interpret information in long-term memory.

Question 29

True or False: Long-term memory has a limit on the amount of information it can store.

Answer 29

False ## Footnote Long-term memory is believed to have no practical limit.

Question 30

What is forgetting?

Answer 30

Inability to use information in long-term memory (LTM) ## Footnote Forgetting can occur at any stage of the memory process.

Question 31

What can interfere with new learning?

Answer 31

Old learning ## Footnote Old knowledge can hinder the acquisition of new information.

Question 32

What are the different types of forgetting?

Answer 32

* Decay * Repression * Amnesia (Retrograde, Anterograde, Infantile) ## Footnote These types describe various mechanisms through which forgetting can occur.

Question 33

What is recognition in memory tasks?

Answer 33

Identify previously encountered information ## Footnote Recognition is a basic memory task that involves recognizing familiar items.

Question 34

What is recall in memory tasks?

Answer 34

Bring back information to mind ## Footnote Recall is a process of retrieving information without cues.

Question 35

What is relearning in memory tasks?

Answer 35

Things we once knew ## Footnote Relearning involves revisiting previously learned information.

Question 36

What is one method to improve memory?

Answer 36

Drill and Practice ## Footnote Repeated practice can enhance retention and recall of information.

Question 37

What does 'retake to existing knowledge' refer to in memory improvement?

Answer 37

Linking new information to what is already known ## Footnote This strategy helps in better understanding and retention.

Question 38

What is a technique for improving memory that involves forming unusual associations?

Answer 38

Use mnemonic devices ## Footnote Mnemonic devices can aid in memorization by creating unique connections.

Question 39

What is thinking?

Answer 39

The mental activity that is involved in the understanding, processing, and communicating of information ## Footnote Thinking encompasses various cognitive processes.

Question 40

What are the components that make thinking possible?

Answer 40

* Symbols * Concepts * Prototypes ## Footnote These components are essential for organizing and processing information.

Question 41

What are the three kinds of thinking?

Answer 41

* Convergent * Divergent * Metacognition ## Footnote Each type of thinking serves a different purpose in cognitive processes.

Question 42

Define convergent thinking.

Answer 42

A type of thinking that focuses on facts ## Footnote It is often used in problem-solving situations where there is a single correct answer.

Question 43

Define divergent thinking.

Answer 43

A type of thinking that emphasizes creativity ## Footnote It allows for multiple possible solutions and ideas.

Question 44

What is metacognition?

Answer 44

Thinking about thinking ## Footnote It involves self-awareness and regulation of one’s own thought processes.

Question 45

Fill in the blank: Thinking is made possible with _______.

Answer 45

[Symbols, Concepts, Prototypes] ## Footnote These elements are fundamental to cognitive functioning.

Question 46

What is the primary focus of effective thinking processes?

Answer 46

To enhance problem-solving and decision-making skills ## Footnote Effective thinking processes can lead to more efficient outcomes.

Question 47

True or False: Divergent thinking is primarily focused on arriving at a single correct answer.

Answer 47

False ## Footnote Divergent thinking is about generating multiple possibilities and solutions.

Question 48

What are two main approaches to problem solving?

Answer 48

Algorithms and heuristics ## Footnote Algorithms are step-by-step procedures, while heuristics are general problem-solving strategies.

Question 49

Define 'algorithm' in the context of problem solving.

Answer 49

A step-by-step procedure to solve a problem or complete a task ## Footnote Algorithms guarantee a solution if followed correctly.

Question 50

What is a heuristic?

Answer 50

A general problem-solving strategy that may not guarantee a solution ## Footnote Heuristics are often used to simplify complex problems.

Question 51

Name a problem-solving method that involves making random guesses until a solution is found.

Answer 51

Trial and Error ## Footnote This method can be time-consuming and inefficient.

Question 52

What does 'difference reduction' refer to in problem solving?

Answer 52

A strategy that focuses on reducing the difference between the current state and the desired goal state ## Footnote It involves identifying the steps needed to reach the goal.

Question 53

Explain 'means-ends analysis'.

Answer 53

A problem-solving method that involves breaking down the problem into subgoals ## Footnote This approach helps in managing complex problems by addressing smaller parts.

Question 54

What is 'working backwards' in problem solving?

Answer 54

A technique where one starts from the desired goal and works back to the current situation ## Footnote This method can help clarify the steps needed to achieve the goal.

Question 55

How are analogies used in problem solving?

Answer 55

By comparing the current problem to a similar situation to find a solution ## Footnote Analogies can provide insights based on past experiences.

Question 56

List two obstacles to problem solving.

Answer 56

* Mental Set * Functional Fixedness ## Footnote These obstacles can limit creative thinking and problem-solving abilities.

Question 57

What is 'mental set'?

Answer 57

A tendency to approach problems in a fixed way based on past experiences ## Footnote This can lead to overlooking alternative solutions.

Question 58

Define 'functional fixedness'.

Answer 58

A cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used ## Footnote This can hinder innovative problem solving.

Question 59

What is reasoning in the context of decision making?

Answer 59

Using information to reach conclusions ## Footnote Reasoning is essential for making informed decisions.

Question 60

What are the two main types of reasoning?

Answer 60

* Deductive reasoning * Inductive reasoning ## Footnote Deductive reasoning starts with general principles to reach specific conclusions, while inductive reasoning involves making generalizations based on specific observations.

Question 61

Fill in the blank: Deductive reasoning starts with _______.

Answer 61

[general principles] ## Footnote This type of reasoning moves from the general to the specific.

Question 62

Fill in the blank: Inductive reasoning involves making generalizations based on _______.

Answer 62

[specific observations] ## Footnote This reasoning moves from specific instances to broader generalizations.

Question 63

What is Deductive Reasoning?

Answer 63

Reasoning from general premises to reach a specific conclusion ## Footnote The conclusion is true if the premises are true.

Question 64

What is a premise in deductive reasoning?

Answer 64

An idea or statement that provides basic information to draw conclusions ## Footnote Premises form the foundation for deductive reasoning.

Question 65

True or False: In deductive reasoning, the conclusion is always true if the premises are true.

Answer 65

True

Question 66

Provide an example of deductive reasoning.

Answer 66

1.) South Korea is in Asia. 2.) The city of Seoul is in South Korea. 3.) Therefore, Seoul is in Asia. ## Footnote This example illustrates valid deductive reasoning.

Question 67

Provide an example of a false deductive reasoning argument.

Answer 67

1.) Countries that are near each other have similar languages. 2.) US and Mexico are near each other. 3.) Therefore, the US and Mexico have similar languages. ## Footnote This conclusion is incorrect despite the premises being true.

Question 68

What is Inductive Reasoning?

Answer 68

Reasoning from individual cases or particular facts to reach a general conclusion ## Footnote Conclusions may be wrong even when premises are accurate.

Question 69

Provide an example of inductive reasoning.

Answer 69

1.) Spain and Portugal are near each other and have similar languages. ## Footnote This illustrates the process of drawing a general conclusion from specific observations.