Unit 3: Native Americans and the New Deal Flashcards
(13 cards)
Who was John Collier?
- The Commissioner of Indian Affairs under Franklin D. Roosevelt during the 1930s
- Before his appointment, he was a prolific campaigner for Native American rights, founding the American Indian Defense Association and spending time living on reservations
- He strongly believed in preserving Indian culture
When was the Wheeler-Howard Act passed and by who?
The Wheeler-Howard Act was also known as the Indian Reorganisation Act
- 1934
- It was passed by Congress at the request of John Collier and endorsement of the president
- However, some amendments were made by House and Senate committees to ensure it did not substantially interfere with the government’s policy of assimilation, though it did mark a depature from earlier government attempts to curb tribal autonomy
What were the economic provisions of the Wheeler-Howard Act?
- It ended the policies of the Dawes Act by terminating the allotment of land
- It outlawed the sale of allotted Indian land to the highest bidder, preventing territorial losses
- The federal government acquired unallocated land to expand the reservations, though funding was often insufficient and western states resisted federal control of their land
- Tribes were permitted to create tribal corportations, which were free enterprises that provided communal benefits
What were the political provisions of the Wheeler-Howard Act?
- Tribes were encouraged to adopt their own constitutions and charters of self-government
- Tribes became recognised as legal entities with some degree of self-determination
- The political rights granted by the 1924 Citizenship Act were reinforced, though many Native Americans were still unable to exercise them or did not want to
These were the most ambitious plans and many were tempered by Congress before the passsage of the bill
Which political provisions of the Wheeler-Howard Act were withdrawn, showcasing the continued focus on assimilation in the federal government?
- The proposal to establish a separate federal court with Native American justices to deal with Indian issues was abandoned
- Many proposals that would have enforced autonomy were withdrawn, making it difficult for tribes to exercise any real autonomy with their constitutions or government charters
What were the social provisions of the Wheeler-Howard Act?
- The act withdrew many restrictions on Native American culture; for example, a 1883 law that banned ceremonial dances was repealed and peyote was permitted
- Federal programs that provided educational access on the reservation were bolstered, though this represented a significant part of the assimilation policy
- Hospitals and other infrastructure like irrigation systems were constructed on reservations using New Deal funds, though money was often tight
Improving the quality of life on reservations was a way of showing the benefits of aligning with mainstream American to Native Americans
What are some examples of Native Americans becoming more politically independent in the period?
- Tribes were able to vote for the Wheeler-Howard Act in a referendum, though most tribal members could not participate
- Native Americans became increasily involved in the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA)
What were the effects of the New Deal on Native American women?
- Political rights were extended to women as well as men
- Women benefited from the increased cultural freedom the act provided, as there was a renewed interest in Native American culture from mainstream America, which provided economic opportunity
- Many women gained increase education access; for example, Gladys Tantaquidgeon studied anthropology at UPenn and subsequently worked in the BIA
What proportion of tribes agreed to the Wheeler-Howard Act and how was the process of voting carried out?
- 174/252 agreed
- It was decided by secret ballots, which involved democratic concepts foreign to many Native Americans who preferred to reach resolutions through tribal councils
- As a consequence, many did not vote
- Abstinence was considered a vote in favour, which tipped the balance in many reservations, showing that the bill was not decisively endored by American Indians
How did tribes react to the Wheeler-Howard Act?
- He did not consult them when drafting the bill
- As a result, many Native Americans were opposed to some of its provisions, including those who had assimilated due to the Dawes Act, were afraid of losing their land and now no longer sought self-determination
- Many did not approve of how the the organisation of their tribe’s governance was prescribed by the federal government and disliked the paternalism of the BIA
- That said, many welcomed the increase autonomy and infrastructure it provided
What was Native American population growth like in 1938
- Higher than that of the rest of America, indicating the positive effects of the IRA
- It was the first time in the period 1865-1992 that the population began increasing
What were the effects of the IRA on agriculture?
- The land that was restored to the collective ownership of tribes was cultivated with increased productivity, as this is how American Indians had farmed for centuries
- This led to greater economic prosperity on the reservations while not impeding on independent Indian farmers who had been allocated land by the Dawes Act
What happened to many Indians who left the reservations?
- Despite the educational opportunities that were provided, many emerged from tribal life with few practical qualifications
- Consequently, many Indians in urban areas were jobless and destitute, falling victim to alcoholism and drug abuse
