(Unit 3) Stress

Question 1

Holmes and Rahe (1967)

Answer 1

Created an SRRS (Questionnaire to measure life events and stress) which included 43 different life events, all given numbers based on how stressful they were deemed-the resulting figure when all were tallied up would be a persons life change unit.

A person with less than a 150 LCU had a 30 percent chance of suffering from stress, while a score of over 300 meant you had an 80 chance of developing a stress related illness.

Question 2

SRRS

Answer 2

Social Readjustment Rating Scale (Questionnaire to measure life events and stress)

Question 3

Rahe et al (1970) aims

Answer 3

To investigate whether the onset of illness correlates with the SRRS scores.

Question 4

Rahe et al (1970) procedure

Answer 4

Navy soldiers were given the SRRS to complete prior to a tour that would last 6-8 months. They had to tick how many of those life events they had experienced in the previous six months and a score was given.

Any illness over the next 6 months was recorded.

Question 5

Rahe et al (1970) findings

Answer 5

Small positive correlation between the life change score and illness, meaning the higher the number of life events the greater your chance of developing a stress related illness.

Question 6

Life Change Unit

Answer 6

Refers to the number of points awarded on an item on the SRRS

Question 7

Stress

Answer 7

A state which occurs when the perceived demands of a situation exceed the perceived ability to cope.

Question 8

Daily hassles

Answer 8

Minor events from everyday life such as misplacing your shoes or missing the train to work

Question 9

Kanner et al (1981) aim

Answer 9

To compare the hassles and uplife scale with the SRRS as predictors of psychological symptoms of stress, such as ill health

Question 10

Hassles scale

Answer 10

Consists of 117 hassles, including losing things, pollution and concerns about owing money. Participants are asked to circle which items had happened to them in the previous month, and once completed they rate on a three point scale the severity of these occurences.

Question 11

Uplifts scale

Answer 11

Consists of 135 items, including being lucky, getting a present and making friends. Participants are asked to circle which items had happened to them in the previous month, and once completed they rate on a three point scale the frequency of these occurrences.

Question 12

Kanner et al (1981) procedure

Answer 12

100 participants with a relatively split gender ratio aged 45-64 who participated in a twelve month study on stress, coping and emotions. They were white, generally well educated, on an adequate income and were from california. The study used the Hassles scale and the Uplifts scale.

Tests were sent to each participant one month before the study began, after which they would have an interview.

Question 13

Kanner et al (1981) findings

Answer 13

The hassles and uplifts scores were generally consistent from month to month. They found that men’s events were positively correlated with hassles (the more events, the more hassles) and negatively correlated for uplifts (the more events, the fewer uplifts. For women life events positively correlated with both hassles and uplifts. Finally, hassles were a significantly better predictor of psychological symptoms, for example stress from life events.

Question 14

Kanner et al (1981) strengths

Answer 14

Self report questionnaires and scales are often standardised which makes the replication with other samples possible

Lots of qualitative and quantitative data can be gathered about stress and its influences from participants in order to analyse patterns of what is influencing stress in society.

Question 15

Kanner et al (1981) weaknesses

Answer 15

Social desirability bias may occur when you ask participants to report on their stress and daily lives. For example, they could be embarrassed which could cause the results to be biased.

People may rush the questionnaires.

Question 16

Johannsson et al (1988) aim

Answer 16

To examine the psychological and physiological stress response of employees in a Swedish saw mill

Question 17

Johannsson et al (1988) procedure

Answer 17

The sample was made up of two groups. The high risk group, which was made up of 14 sawyers, edgermen and graders, while the control group was made up of repair men, maintenance workers, and so on. All of the workers were on performance related pay and worked shift work.

All participants provided a urine sample in addition to rating themselves on mood and wakefulness by selecting words like sleepiness, irritation, and so on. (Scale from none at all to maximum)

Question 18

Johannsson et al (1988) Findings

Answer 18

The high risk group had higher irritability ratings and reported feeling more rushed than the control. Their adrenaline levels were two times higher than the baseline (which was measured at home) and only continued to rise during the day.

Question 19

Johannsson et al (1988) Conclusion

Answer 19

Repetitive, machine paced and attention demanding work in a Swedish saw mill contributed to high stress level in the high risk group. This was a risk to their wellbeing.

Higher stress levels in work are caused by lack of control over job, repetitive work, and stress of performance related pay.

Question 20

Role conflict

Answer 20

Involves an individual being put in a situation that requires them to behave in a way that is not in their best interests.

Question 21

Breslow & Buell (1960) Level of Control

Answer 21

Amount of work can increase workplace stress; having too much or too little can have similar effects. Those who work more than 48 hours a week were twice as likely to develop coronary heart disease than those working 40 hours a week. Being in control is an important element of workplace stress.

Question 22

Rotter (1966) Locus of control

Answer 22

Refers to the sense of responsibility we each have about what directs events into our lives.

Question 23

Rotter (1966) Internal locus of control

Answer 23

These are individuals who take full responsibility for the events that happen in their lives

Question 24

Rotter (1966) External locus of control

Answer 24

An individual who believes that the things that happen to them are out of luck, circumstances, other people etc.

Question 25

Rotter (1966) aim

Answer 25

Rotter aimed to review research into internal and external Loc and produce a questionnaire.

Question 26

Rotter (1966) procedure

Answer 26

Rotter reviewed several published and unpublished studies that investigated the links between Loc and other psychological variables.

He produced a questionnaire called the internal-external scale. Which consisted of 29 statements, one internal and external.

Each participant had to pick a statement that closely reflected their beliefs in order to measure their Loc.

Question 27

Rotter (1966) findings

Answer 27

Rotter found that the I-E scale was a valid and reliable method to measure Loc.

Internals were more likely than externals to change their environment, resist temptation, and be concerned with skill and ability.

Question 28

Rotter (1966) conclusion

Answer 28

Loc is a powerful predictor of a wide variety of behaviours in many situations.

Loc can be validly and reliably measured in adults and children through using the I-E scale. And Loc can be affected by factors such as parenting, culture, and socioeconomic influences.

Question 29

Rotter (1966) One strength to support the theory of Loc

Answer 29

There is evidence to support the link between Loc and conformity. With Theo Avtgis’ study, he found that high externals were more persuadable than high internals. Which suggests that Loc may make externals more vulnerable to risk factors such as addiction.

Question 30

Rotter (1966) Strength to support practical application of Loc

Answer 30

The link between Loc and health is useful.
In 2008 Catherine Gale measured the Loc of 7551 children aged 10. And by the age of 30 those who were internals were less likely than externals to be obese or experience psychological stress. This suggests that interventions aimed at developing an internal Loc could be one way of helping people gain health benefits later.

Question 31

Krause’s weakness of the role of Loc

Answer 31

In 1986 Neal Krause found that extreme internals respond to unavoidable events by becoming stressed just the same as externals do. Therefore, being internal doesn’t automatically prevent you from being stressed. Leading to the theory that Loc can’t account for individual differences in health-related behaviours.

Question 32

Rotter (1966) strength

Answer 32

Rotters review was one of the earliest and most comprehensive investigations into the role of Loc. His review explained why studies gave different findings about the effects of key variables such as stress on behaviour. And it was because internals and externals respond differently to certain variables, and other studies did not take this into account.

Question 33

Rotter (1966) weakness

Answer 33

There was variability with the studies Rotter used for his. And any weaknesses found in these studies would reduce the validity of the conclusions drawn by Rotter. For example, social desirability bias may have affected the validity of questionnaire studies because people are not truly representing their experience. Therefore, we cannot rely on the conclusions Rotter drew out about Loc as there were no measure of quality checked within the studies.

Question 34

Louis et al (2009) Aim

Answer 34

To test the theory of planned behaviour as an explanation of health decision making and its relationship with stress

Question 35

Louis et al (2009) Procedure

Answer 35

154 male and female students completed a questionnaire to measure the following factors related to healthy eating behaviour: subjective norms, perceived behavioural control and intentions to eat healthy/unhealthy food. The research also measured the participants degree of life stress and their perception of body images

Question 36

Louis et al (2009) Findings

Answer 36

Personal attitudes towards healthy eating predicted intention to eat healthy food but subjective norms did not. Small effect of perceived control on healthy eating intentions. subjective norms favouring healthy eating predicted to eat unhealthy but at low levels of stress

Question 37

Louis et al (2009) Conclusion

Answer 37

Provides partial support for the theory of planned behaviour. Perceived control predicted intention to eat more healthy. However the impact of attitude/norm/control on intentions were all affected by stress, which isn’t predicted by the theory

Question 38

Louis et al (2009) Strength

Answer 38

Personal attitudes towards healthy eating predicted intention to eat healthy food but subjective norms did not. Small effect of perceived control on healthy eating intentions. subjective norms, following healthy eating predicted to eat unhealthy but at low levels of stress

Question 39

Louis et al (2009) Weakness

Answer 39

One weakness is that this study was based on the questionnaire data. Self report are subjective measures and suffer from limitations such as social desirability bias where participants respond to questionnaires in a way that make them look good. in addition to that there was no objective measures in the study, such as the amount of actual healthy eating participants engaged in. This means that the study is measuring intentions but not behaviours, and intentions may not lead to changes in behaviour.

Question 40

Krause (1986) aims

Answer 40

Krause aimed to see if older adults with an extreme internal or external locus of control will experience stressful life events more strongly than people with moderate internal or external locus of control

Question 41

Krause (1986) procedure

Answer 41

351 retired people aged over 65 were interviewed and completed questionnaires to measure depression, stressful life events and locus of control. The questionnaire included both close and open items.

Question 42

Krause (1986) findings

Answer 42

Participants with extreme internal control beliefs experienced fewer stressful life events then extreme externals. However, extreme internals and extreme externals were both more vulnerable to becoming depressed when they were stressed. The participants who believed in the effects of chance (externals) were more vulnerable to the effects of stress then participants who do not believe the effects of chance (internals)

Question 43

Krause (1986) conclusion

Answer 43

Krause suggests that having an internal locus of control is a mixed blessing. Compared to externals, extreme internals are more likely to avoid stressful events, but they respond just as negatively (self blame) to unavoidable events. So, the view that internals are better than externals at coping with stress is too simplistic and should be replaced with more complex models of how older adults cope.

Question 44

Krause (1986) strength

Answer 44

One strength of this study is that it presents a complex and more accurate view of LOC than the traditional concept. research before this study tended to assume that people with extreme internal loc are more or less immune from the effects of stress. Krause showed that this was a simplistic interpretation because it ignores the self-blame that extreme internals experience when they fail to cope with unavoidable stressors. The findings of the study suggest that older people with an extreme internal locus of control may also need help to cope with some stresses.

Question 45

Krause (1986) weakness

Answer 45

One weakness is that the sample of participants was biased. The ethnic mix of the sample did not reflect the ethnicity of retired people in the USA at the time. For example The sample in the study was 64% white and 27% black African or American. So, white people were under represented in the study and black/African American people were over represented, this means the studies findings cannot be generalised to the wider population of the retired people.

Question 46

Cooke et al (2016) aims

Answer 46

To review research into the correlations between TPB variables, intentions to consume alcohol and actual alcohol consumption.

Question 47

Cooke et al (2016) procedure

Answer 47

Reviewed 40 studies measuring intentions to consume alcohol. The studies had also directly measured personal attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived control. In addition, some studies measured self-efficacy in being able to reduce or give up alcohol.

Question 48

Cooke et al (2016) findings

Answer 48

Positive correlations were found between:

· Intentions to consume and actual consumption

· Intentions and attitudes

· Subjective norms and perceived control

Episodic drinking predicted intentions to drink more strongly than other types of drinking. Self-efficacy positively correlated with both intentions to drink and actual consumption.

Question 49

Cooke et al (2016) conclusion

Answer 49

The TPB appears to be useful in understanding intentions to drink alcohol. The findings suggest that intentions to reduce drinking should target personal attitudes and intentions rather than control and subjective norms.

Question 50

Cooke et al (2016) strength

Answer 50

Relatively large number of studies

Question 51

Cooke et al (2016) weakness

Answer 51

Not cause and effect

Question 52

Carpenter (2010) What were the aims of this study?

Answer 52

To investigate how well measurements of the health belief model components predicted actual behaviour change over different lengths of time.

Question 53

Carpenter (2010) Procedure

Answer 53

• 18 longitudinal studies that measured at least two variables of the health belief model
• Carpenter looked at :
  Do the effects wear off over time?
  Whether the study’s target behaviour was a treatment or preventative behaviour

Question 54

Carpenter (2010) Findings - seriousness

Answer 54

Perceived seriousness of the condition had weak effect on the behaviour and the effect wore off over time

Question 55

Carpenter (2010) Findings - benefits

Answer 55

Seeing the benefits did increase the likelihood of behaviour change, but this wore off over time

Question 56

Carpenter (2010) Findings - barriers

Answer 56

Having fewer barriers was the strongest predictor of people starting preventative behaviour, but the effect was less for treatment

Question 57

Carpenter (2010) conclusions of study

Answer 57

• the review offered little support for the health belief model
• the health belief model variables appear to differ in how strongly they predict behaviour
• perceived barriers and benefits are the only components of the health belief model that constantly predict behaviour

Question 58

Carpenter (2010) Evaluation - Good Points

Answer 58

• the study gives researchers valuable suggestions about what to do next
• it showed what parts of the health belief model work ( benefits and barriers ) and the ones that don’t work ( seriousness and susceptibility)

Question 59

Carpenter (2010) Evaluation - bad points

Answer 59

• studies used could have been unethical
• low validity as quality of studied varied.

Question 60

Becker et al (1978) Aim

Answer 60

Using the HBM to explain mothers’ compliance with asthma treatment for their children

Question 61

Becker et al (1978) Target Population

Answer 61

111 mothers who children were diagnosed with asthma

Question 62

Becker et al (1978) Procedure

Answer 62

Mothers were interviewed about attitudes towards asthma and whether they stuck with the treatment plan. Blood tests were taken from children to check if they had been having asthma medication.

Question 63

Becker et al (1978) Findings

Answer 63

Found positive correlations between the mothers compliance with giving prescribed medication and:

Perception of the seriousness of their child’s asthma (the more serious the asthma was perceived, the more likely medication was given)
Beliefs about their child’s susceptibility to asthma attacks (the more likely the mother believed their child was going to have an asthma attack, the more likely medication was given)

Only two demographic variables were influential - married and higher-educated mothers were more likely to comply (give medication regularly).

Question 64

Becker et al (1978) What were the four perceived barriers in the findings?

Answer 64

1. Trouble getting prescription,
2. Problems with the schedule for giving the drug,
3. Children complaining about the taste of the medicine,
4. Disruption to everyday activities

Question 65

Becker et al (1978) What were the conclusions of the study?

Answer 65

Health belief model is useful in predicting compliance with medical treatment plans in cases of long-term conditions such as asthma. The findings confirm the validity of each major component of the HBM as predictors of health-related behaviours (giving asthma treatment).

Question 66

Becker et al (1978) Strengths

Answer 66

+ This study is valid as Becker’s aims matched his conclusion. The findings confirmed each major component of the HBM as predictors of health-related behaviour.
+ The mothers all gave consent. They had the ethical right to withdraw and we know as much as the sample size was smaller as the experiment reached its end.

Question 67

Becker et al (1978) Weaknesses

Answer 67

• The sample used in this study is not very large therefore may not be generalisable to all mothers - they may not have considered mothers of children with asthma who cannot afford to get the medicines, which may cause them to have a different level of perceived severity.
• Another weakness is that the method used is not that great as interviews take too long (reduce reliability).

Question 68

Bandura and Adam (1997) aims

Answer 68

Investigate the role of self-efficacy in the treatment of snake phobia. (Using Systematic Desensitisation). They wanted to see if reducing emotional arousal through relaxation would enhance self-efficacy and reduce avoidance of snakes.

Question 69

Bandura and Adam (1997) procedure

Answer 69

People with a chronic snake phobia were assessed for:

· Degree of avoidance (tasks with large snake).

· Fear arousal (fear experienced 1-10).

· Efficacy expectations (how strongly they believed they could perform the tasks from 0 to 100).

Systematic desensitisation was given individually. The tests used before treatment were repeated within one week of the treatment ending.

Question 70

Bandura and Adam (1997) findings

Answer 70

· There were higher levels of self-efficacy after treatment compared with before.

· There was a strong positive correlation between self-efficacy level and approach behaviour towards the snake.

· There was a substantial reduction in fear after the treatment.

Question 71

Bandura and Adam (1997) conclusions

Answer 71

The treatment increased self-efficacy (belief in coping with phobia), supporting Bandura’s self-efficacy theory, and confirming his view that self-efficacy plays a central role in behaviour change.

Question 72

Bandura and Adam (1997) strength

Answer 72

• interventions can target self-efficacy and help enhance it, behaviour change more likely.
• Standardised procedure and controlled extraneous variables

Question 73

Bandura and Adam (1997) weakness

Answer 73

• results may not be same for male sample. So may not be generalisable.
• may have under-reported fears to not look scared or over-reported as they thought this was what was expected of them (demand characteristics)

Question 74

Abouserie (1994) Aim

Answer 74

To identify academic sources of stress in students, investigate gender differences and examine links between sources of stress, locus of control (LoC) and self-esteem.

Question 75

Abouserie (1994) Sample

Answer 75

Sample consisted of 675 2nd year undergraduate students from University of Wales in Cardiff.

Question 76

Abouserie (1994) Procedure

Answer 76

675 students (70% females) completed four questionnaires:

· Academic Stress Questionnaire (ASQ) – 34 causes of stress related to learning or social factors.

· Life Stress Questionnaire (LSQ) – 54 items divided into low/ moderate/ serious/ very serious.

· LoC Scale – Success/failure.

· Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale – 10 items

Question 77

Abouserie (1994) Findings

Answer 77

Academic-related sources were most successful. In terms of life stress 77.6% reported moderate stress and 12% reported no problem. Academic and life stress were both reported higher in females.

· The was a significant positive correlation between LoC and academic stress but none between LoC and life stress.

· There were significant negative correlations between self-esteem and both academic and life stress.

Question 78

Abouserie (1994) Conclusion

Answer 78

Most students experience moderate academic stress. With about 10% needing help to improve their coping resources. Further research is needed to discover why female students appear to have higher stress levels. Counselling can help students to change their LoC into a more internal direction which will help them deal with stress.

Question 79

Abouserie (1994) Strengths

Answer 79

Shows importance of academic counselling in helping students cope with academic stress making study useful

Sample consisted of large number of students from a variety of different department from University of Wales increasing generalisability

Question 80

Abouserie (1994) Weaknesses

Answer 80

Number of questionnaires completed. There is a possibility that these are not reliable measures of stress as they are subject to social desirability and demand characteristics

Study only shows a correlation between academic stress and LOC and so cause and effect cannot be established

Question 81

Friedman and Rosenhan 4 personality types

Answer 81

Type A - Hostile, competitive, impatient, easily angered and direct emotions inward

Type B - Non-competitive, non-aggressive

Type C - Patient, co-operative, little negative energy, more concerned with others and self-sacrificing

Type D - Vulnerable, pessimistic outlook and low self-esteem

Question 82

Kobasa (1979) Hardiness

Answer 82

Kobasa introduced the idea of hardiness personality types. They’re less likely to see stressful events as stressful.

Gave her sample an SRRS, a personality test and an LoC test. She found the group who did not suffer stress related illnesses had stronger commitment to their jobs, strong internal locus of control and saw stressful life events as challenges.

So hardiness personality has three aspects. Commitment, control and challenge.

Question 83

Selye (1947) General Adaptation Syndrome

Answer 83

Selye developed a three stage model for how the body responds to stress

Alarm - Stressor, alerts hypothalamus and stress related hormones activate

Resistance - The body holds this level of response but after a while shows signs of strain as the immune system is unable to cope

Exhaustion - Body becomes very tired and stress related illness occurs

Question 84

Sympathomedullary System

Answer 84

Parasympathetic nervous system - Slows down heart rate, lowers blood levels and adrenaline

Sympathetic nervous system - Increases the heart rate, blood pressure and breathing.

Question 85

Sympathomedullary System Example

Answer 85

Hypothalamus is alerted of a stressful situation

Hypothalamus activates sympathetic nervous system

Sympathetic nervous system stimulates the adrenal medulla to release adrenaline

Once stress has passed the parasympathetic branch kicks in

Question 86

Sympathomedullary System domino effect

Answer 86

Acute stressor (e.g. slipping on ice)
Hypothalamus activates the sympathetic nervous system which activates the adrenal medulla, which releases adrenaline and noradrenaline, which equips for fight or flight by causing physiological reactions such as increased heart read and blood pressure.

Question 87

HPA System

Answer 87

Deals with long term effects of stress. It has a slower reaction and occurs only if the stressful situation continues for a long period of time.

Question 88

Physiological response to stress

Answer 88

Question 89

Strength of the physiological response to stress

Answer 89

Scientific as it measures hormones, blood samples and scans of the brain and body. Objective as it is based in facts and empirical evidence.

Question 90

Weaknesses of the physiological response to stress

Answer 90

Everyone responds to stress differently and it could be effected by other factors, such as personality types and upbringing.

Another response, known as both cognitive paralysis or the freeze response does exist. More commonly seen in children but can also be seen in adults.

Fight or flight response is maladaptive to humans now. A part of genome lag.

Question 91

Stressful situations put your body on high alert and…

Answer 91

Releases hormones such as corticosteroids. These supress the activity of our immune system and results in people becoming more vulnerable to diseases. Heart disease, diabetes, IBS plus many more conditions are related to stress.

Question 92

Antigen

Answer 92

A harmful foreign substance entering the body (e.g. bacteria and viruses) which cause the immune system to react. Main immune cells are white blood cells called lymphocytes and phagocytes.

Question 93

Two immune systems

Answer 93

Natural immunity

Specific immunity

Question 94

Natural immunity

Answer 94

Attack and absorb pathogens that invade the body

Question 95

Specific immunity

Answer 95

Specific cells which recognise what pathogens are invading and produce an antibody to get rid of them

Question 96

Kiecolt and Glaser (1984) Aim

Answer 96

Looks at stressors and the impact they have on the immune system

Question 97

Kiecolt and Glaser (1984) Procedure

Answer 97

75 first year medical students. Blood samples taken one month before exams as well as the day of. Students completed the SRRS and were divided into two groups of low and high stress. A lower level of NK cells (natural killer cells) in the blood would mean a weaker immune system.

Question 98

Kiecolt and Glaser (1984) Findings

Answer 98

Decrease in NK cell activity from the first blood test and second blood test. The highs tress groups (based on SRRS) also had lower NK activity.

Question 99

Kiecolt and Glaser (1984) Conclusion

Answer 99

Stress gives you fewer NK cells and weakens your immune system as a result