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BIOL1046 Human Biology II > Unit 3A: The Skeletal System > Flashcards

Unit 3A: The Skeletal System Flashcards

1
Q

General Functions of the Skeletal System

Support and Protection

A
  • Bones provide the framework for the body
  • Skull protects brain, vertebrae protect the spinal cord, ribcage protects vital organs
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2
Q

General Functions of the Skeletal System

Levers for Movement

A
  • Muscles attach to and pull on the bones for movement
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3
Q

General Functions of the Skeletal System

Hematopoiesis

A
  • Blood cell production in the red bone marrow
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4
Q

General Functions of the Skeletal System

Storage of Mineral and Energy Reserves

A
  • Calcium and phosphate storage
  • Ctorage of adipose tissue (yellow marrow)
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5
Q

General Organization of the Skeleton

Axial Skeleton

A
  • Composed of bones along central body axis
  • Skull, vertebral column, and throacic cage
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6
Q

General Organization of the Skeleton

Appendicular Skeleton

A
  • Bones of upper and lower limbs
  • Gridles of bones attch limbs to axial skeleton
  • Pectoral girdle holds upper limbs in place
  • Pelvic girdle holds lower limbs in place
    (note: Os Coxae, scapulae and clavicles are apart of the appendicular skeleton, even though they are in/on the torso)
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7
Q

Components of the Skeletal System

Bones

A
  • Primary organs of the skeletal system
  • Rigid framework of body plus other functions
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8
Q

Components of the Skeletal System

Cartilage

A
  • Semirigid Connective Tissue, more flexible than bone
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9
Q

Components of the Skeletal System

Hyaline Cartilage

A
  • Attaches rids to sternum, covers ends of some bones, within growth plates, model for bone formation
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10
Q

Components of the Skeletal System

Fibrocartilage

A
  • Weight-bearing cartilage that withstands compression (e.g. intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, menisci of knee)
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11
Q

Components of the Skeletal System

Ligaments

A

Fibrous connective tissue connecting bone to bone

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12
Q

Components of the Skeletal Sytem

Tendons

A
  • Fibrous connective tissue connecting muscle to bone
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13
Q

Classification of Bones by Shape

Long Bones

A
  • Greater in length then width (e.g. femur, humerus)
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14
Q

Classification of Bones by Shape

Short Bones

A
  • Length nearly equal to width (e.g. carpals and tarsals)
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15
Q

Classification of Bones by Shape

Sesamoid Bones

A
  • Rounded bones - usually small (e.g. patella, random bones in tendons)
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16
Q

Classifcation of Bones by Shape

Flat Bones

A
  • Flat, thin surface, may be slightly curved (e.g. cranial bones)
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17
Q

Classification of Bones by Shape

Irregular Bones

A
  • Elaborate, sometimes complex shape (e.g. vertebrae)
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18
Q

Gross Anatomy of Long Bones

Diaphysis

A
  • Elongated, usually cylindrtical shaft of compact bone
  • Provides leverage and weight support
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19
Q

Gross Anatomy of Long Bones

Medullary (marrow) Cavity

A
  • Hollow, cylindrical space within the disphysis
  • Contains red bone marrow in children
  • Contains yellow bone marrow in adults
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20
Q

Gross Anatomy of Long Bones

Epiphysis

A
  • Knobby region at each end of long bone
  • Proximal epiphysis - closest to body trunk
  • Distal epiphysis - farthest from trunk
  • Outer thin layer of compact bone with inner region of spongy bone
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21
Q

Gross Anatomy of Long Bones

Articular Cartilage

A
  • Thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering surface of epiphysis
  • Reduces friction
  • Absorbs shock in moveable joints
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22
Q

Gross Anatomy of Long Bones

Metaphysis

A
  • Region where bone widens and transfers weight between the diaphysis and epiphysis
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23
Q

Gross Anatomy of Long Bones

Epiphyseal Plate/Line

A
  • Located within metaphysis
  • Thin layer of hyaline cartilage
  • Growth plate (provides for lengthwise bone growth)
  • In adults, the epiphyseal line, is the remnant of the epiphyseal plate
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24
Q

Classification of Bone by Structure

Compact Bone

A
  • Dense or cortical bone
  • Appears smooth
  • 80% of bone mass
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25
Q

Classification of Bone by Structure

Spongy Bone

A
  • Cancellous or trabecular bone
  • Located internal to compact bone
  • Appears porous
  • 20% of bone mass
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26
Q

General Anatomy of Bone

Blood Supply

A
  • Bone is highly vascularized, espeially in regions opf spongy bone (blood vessels enter from periosteum)
  • Nutrient Foramen - Small opening or hole in bone for artery emterance and vein exit
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27
Q

General Anatomy of Bone

Nerve Supply

A
  • Accompany blood vessels through foramen
  • Innervate bone, periosteum, endosteum, and marrow cavity
  • Mainly sensory nerves
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28
Q

General Anatomy of Bone

Bone Marrow

A
  • Soft connective tissue of bone
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29
Q

General Anatomy of Bone

Red Bone Marrow (Myeloid Tissue)

A
  • Hematopoietic (blood cell forming)
  • Recticular connective tissue, developing blood cells, and adipocytes
  • In children - Located in spongy bone and meduallry cavity of long bones
  • In adults - Located only in selected areas of axial skeleton (skull, vertebrae, ribs, sternum, ossa coxae, proximal epiphyses of humerus and femur)
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30
Q

General Anatomy of Bone

Yellow Bone Marrow

A
  • Product of red bone marrow degeneration as children mature
  • Fatty substance
  • May convert back to red bone marrow (druing severe anemia (reduced RBC’s), and facilitates production of additonal erthrocytes)
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31
Q

Microscopic Anatomy of Compact Bone

Osteons (Haversian Systems)

A
  • Small cylindrical structures
  • Basic functional and structural unit of mature compact bone (Structural -what it is made of (anatomy); Functional - what it does (physiology))
  • Oriented parallel to bone diaphysis
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32
Q

Structure of an Osteon

Central (Haversian) Canal

A
  • Cylindrical channel at center of osteon
  • Contains blood vessels and nerves for the bone
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33
Q

Structure of an Osteon

Concentric Lamellae

A
  • Rings of bone connective tissue surrounding central canal
  • Collagen fibers cross cross from one lamella to the next (90 degrees)
  • Gives bone strength and resilience
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34
Q

Structure of an Osteon

Osteocytes

A
  • Mature bone cells
  • Found in small spaces (lacunae) between concentric lamellae
  • Maintain bone matrix
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35
Q

Structure of an Osteon

Canaliculi

A
  • Tiny, interconnecting channels within bone connective tissue
  • Extend from each lacuna, travel through lamellae and connect to lacunae and central canal
  • Allow exchnage of nutrients, minerals, gases, and wastes between blood vessels and osteocytes
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36
Q

Microscopic Anatomy of Compact Bone

Periosteum

A
  • Tough fibrous sheath of dense irregular connective tissue covering outer surface of bone
  • Protects bone from surrounding structures
  • Anchors blood vessels and nerves to bone surface
  • Attachment site for ligaments and tendons
  • Has an inner cellular layer
  • Includes osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts, osteoclasts
  • Tightly attached to bone ny numerous collagen fibers called perforating fibres
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37
Q

Microscopic Anatomy of Compact Bone

Endosteum

A
  • Covers all internal surfaces of bone within medullary cavity
  • Thin layer of connective tissue containing osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts
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38
Q

Microscopic Anatomy of Comapct Bone

Perforating (Volkmann) Canals

A
  • Perpendicular to central canals
  • Connect central canals within different osteons
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39
Q

Microscopic Anatomy of Compact Bone

Circumferential Lamellae

A
  • External - rings of bone run immediately internal to periosteum
  • Internal - rings of bone run immediately external to the endosteum
  • Both run the entire circumference of the bone
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40
Q

Microscopic Anatomy of Compact Bone

Interstitial Lamellae

A
  • Components of compact bone between osteons or partially resorbed osteons
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41
Q

Microscopic Anatomy of Spongy Bone

Trabeculae

A
  • Open lattice of narrow road and plates of bones
  • Meshwork of crisscrossing bars
  • Bone marrow fills spaces
  • Form along stress lines of bone to help resist stresses
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42
Q

Microscopic Anatomy of Spongy Bone

Parallel Lamellae

A
  • Bone matrix
  • Osteocytes between lamellae
  • Canaliculi radiate from lacunae
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43
Q

Gross Anatomy of Bones

Classes other than Long Bones

A
  • Short, flat, and irregular bones differ from long bones
  • External surface composed of compact bone covered by periosteum
  • Interior composed of spongy bone (Diploe - spongy bone in flat bone of skull)
  • No medullary cavity
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44
Q

Cells in Bone Tissue

Osseus Connective Tissue (Bone CT)

A
  • Osseus tissue is the primary component of bone
  • Like all connective tissue, bone is composed of cells and extracellular matrix
  • Four types of cells found in bone CT (Osteoprogenitor cells, Osteoblasts, Osteocytes, and Osteoclasts)
45
Q

Cells in Bone Tissue

Osteoprogenitor Cells

A
  • Stem cells derived from mesoderm
  • Matures to become an osteoblast
  • Located under periosteum and endosteum
46
Q

Cells in Bone Tissue

Osteoblasts

A
  • Synthesize and secrete osteoid (soift bone matrix made mostly of collagen - later calcifies hard bone)
  • Become entrapped within the matrix and differentiate into osteocytes
47
Q

Cells in Bone Tissue

Osteocytes

A
  • Mature bone cells derived from osteoblasts
  • Detect stress on bone; trigger new bone formation by osteoblasts
48
Q

Cells in Bone Tissue

Osteoclasts

A
  • Bone marrow cells fuse to form large, multinuclera, phagocytic cells
  • Ruffled border increases surface area exposed to bone
  • Involved in bone resorption (breakdown of bone) by releasing digestive enzymes from lysosomes
  • Releases calcium into blood - occurs when blood calcium levels are low
49
Q

Structure of Hyaline Cartilage Tissue

Characteristics of Hyaline Cartilage

A
  • Resilient and flexible
  • High percentage of water
  • Highly compressible and a good shocj absorber
  • Avascular and contains no nerves
50
Q

Structure of Hyaline Cartilage Tissue

Cells scattered through a gel-like matrix of protein fibres

A
  • Chondroblasts (produce cartilage matrix)
  • Chondrocytes (encased within the matrix, occupy small spaces, lacunae, and maintain the matrix)
51
Q

Bone and Cartilage Development and Growth

Bone Development and Growth

A
  • Bone develops from mesoderm
  • Bone development is call ossification or osteogenesis
  • Begins in the embryo from approximately the 8th through 12th weeks of embryonic development
  • Continues through childhood and adolecence
51
Q

Structure of Hyaline Cartilage

Perichondrium

A
  • Dense irregular connective tissue
  • Covers cartilage and helps maintain its shape
51
Q

Bone and Cartilage Development and Growth

Cartilage Growth

A
  • Begins during embryonic development
  • Stops once cartilage is mature except to repair injuries
  • Growth in length through interstitial growth - within the tissue
  • Growth in width by appositonal growth - on the outside edge of the cartilage
52
Q

Bone Development and Growth

Intramembranous Ossification

A
  • Occurs within a membrane
  • Produces flat bones of skull, some facial bones, mandible, part of clavicle
53
Q

Bone Development and Growth

Endochondral Ossification

A
  • Begins with a hyaline cartilage model
  • Produces most bones of skeleton, including bones of upper and lower limbs, pelvis, vertebra, ends of clavicle
54
Q

Steps of Intramembranous Ossification

A
  1. Ossification ceners from within thickened regions of the membrane
    - Some cells become osteoprogenitor cells, some become osteoblasts
  2. Osteoid undegoes calcification
    - Calsium salts deposit onto osteoid and crystallize
    - Entrapped cells
  3. Woven bone and surrounding periosteum form
    - At first, bone is immature and poorly organized - woven bone (primary bone)
    - Membrane surrounding woven bone forms periosteum
  4. Lamellar bone replaces woven bone, as compact and spongy bone form
    - Compact and spongy bone form fro trabeculae
    - Osteoblasts become osteocytes
55
Q

Steps of Endochondral Ossification

A
  1. The fetal hyaline cartilage model develops
    - Chondroblasts secrete cartilage matrix
  2. Cartilage calcifies, a periosteal bone collar forms
    - Blood vessels grow toward cartilage
    - Osteoblasts develop and secrete osteoid to form a periosteal bone collar
    - Matrix in the diaphysis calcifies, and chondrocytes die
  3. Primary ossification center forms in diaphysis
    - Osteoblasts produce osteiod on calcified cartilage template
    - Bone development extends in both direction toward epiphysis
    - Bone displaces calcifies, degenerating cartilage (osteoid)
  4. Secoundary ossification centers form in epiphyses
    - Blood vessels and osteorpogenitor cells enter epiphyses
    - Osteoblasts produce from spongy bone
    - Osteoclasts resorb some bone matrix in diaphysis (creates hollow medullary cavity)
  5. Bone replaces cartilage, except articular cartilage and epiphyseal plates
  6. Lengthwise growth continues until epiphyseal plates ossify and from epiphyseal lines
    - Lengthwise bone growth continues into puberty
    - Occurs between ages 10 and 25 (usually 16-20; delayed in males compared to females)
56
Q

Bone Growth

Interstitial Growth

A
  • Growth in length
  • Dependent upon cartilage growth in epiphyseal plate
57
Q

Bone Growth

Appositional Growth

A
  • Growth in girth (thickness of the diaphysis)
  • Occurs within the periosteum
  • Bone matrix depositied within layers parallel to surface
  • Osteoclasts resorb bone matrix along medullary cavity
58
Q

Bone Remodeling

A
  • Adjustments to the shape of the bone
  • Occurs at periosteal and endosteal surfaces of a bone
  • 20% of skeleton replaced yearly
  • Dependent upon the coordinated activities of osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts
  • Influenced bt hormones and mechanical stress (from weight-bearing exercises and gravity)
  • Occurs at different rates in different locations (e.g. distal part of femur is replaced every 4 to 6 months, diaphysis of femur not completely replaces over a lifetime)
  • Continues through adulthood
59
Q

Bone Fracture and Repair

Stress Fracture

A
  • Thin break casued by increased physical activty
60
Q

Bone Fracture and Repair

Pathologic Fracture

A
  • Occurs in bone weakened by disease
61
Q

Bone Fracture and Repair

Simple Fracture

A
  • Broken bone not penetrating skin
62
Q

Bone Fracture and Repair

Compound Fracture

A

One or both ends of the bone pierce overlying skin

63
Q

Stages of Bone Repair

A
  1. Fracture hematoma (bruise) forms (immediately)
    - Blood vessles torn with periosteum
  2. Fibrocartilaginous (soft) callus forms (1-3 weeks)
    - Fibroblasts produce collagen fibres
    - Chondroblasts form dense regular connective tissue
    - Forms a fibrocartilaginous (soft) callus
  3. Hard (bony) callus forms (3-6 weeks) - may continue longer
    - Osteoblasts adjacent to callus produce trabeculae to replace soft callus with a hard (bony) callus
    - Continues to grow and thicken
  4. Bone is remodeled (6 months - over a year)
    - Osteoclasts remove excess bony material
    - Compact bone replaces primary bone
    - Usually leaves a slight thickening of bone
64
Q

Role of the Skeletal System in Regulating Blood Calcium

A
  • calcium is STORED in the bones, but its regulation it due to levels in the blood and the need for calcium in the rest of the body - this is NOT about regulating calcium in the bones
65
Q

Calcium if required for…

A
  • Initiation of muscle contraction
  • Exocytosis of molecules from cells (neurotransmitter release from neurons)
  • Stimulation of the heart by pacemaker cells
  • Blood clotting
66
Q

Which hormones regulate blood calcium?

A
  • Calcitriol and Parathyroid hormone - active when blood calcium is low
  • Calcitonin - active when blood calcium is high (especially in children)
67
Q

Role of the Skeletal System in Regulating Blood Calcium

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

A
  • Secreted and released by parathyroid glands in reponse to reduced blood calcium levels
  • Accelerates production of calcitriol by kidney
  • PTH and calcitriol interact with major organs
68
Q

Role of the Skeletal System in Regulating Blood Calcium

Bone

A
  • Act synergistically in increase release of calsium from the bone into the blood by increaseing osteoclast activity
69
Q

Role of the Skeletal System in Regulating Blood Calcium

Kidneys

A
  • Stimulate the kidney to excrete less calcium in urine and increase calcium reabsorption
70
Q

Role of the Skeletal System in Regulating Blood Calcium

Small Intestine

A
  • Only calcitriol increases absorption of calcium from small intestine into blood
71
Q

Role of the Skeletal System in Regulating Blood Calcium

Calcitonin - Opposite effect of PTH and Calcitriol

A
  • Less significant role
  • Released from the thyroid gland in response to high blood calcium levels or vigorous exercise
  • Greatest effect during greatest bone turnover (e.g. growing children)
72
Q

Role of the Skeletal System in Regulating Blood Calcium

Functions of Calcitonin

A
  • Inhibits osteoclast activty (calcium stays in bone)
  • Stimulates kidneys to increase loss of calcium in urine (reducing blood calcium levels)
  • Normal absorption of calcium form small intestine (keeps blood calcium low)
73
Q

Development and Aging of the Skeleton

Limb Buds

A
  • Develop from mesoderm covered by a layer of ectoderm
  • Upper limbs begin to form during 5th week of development
  • Lower limbs begin to form during 6th week of development
  • Initially form hand plate and foot plate (paddle shaped limbs)
  • During week 8 - apoptosis (programmed cell death) of padles to seperate digits
74
Q

Development of the Skull

A
  • Shape and structure different in infants and adults
  • Infant’s cranial bones not large enough to surround brain completely
  • Young child’s cranium relatively large compared to body
  • Cranial sutures almost fully developed by age 5
75
Q

Development of the Skull

Fontanelles

A
  • Cranial bones interconnected by dense regular connective tissue - “soft spots” on baby’s head
  • Enable some flexion in body plates during birth to ease baby’s passage through birth canal
  • Posterior fontanelle closes at around 9 months
  • Anterior fontanelle closes at around 15 months
76
Q

Development and Aging of the Skeleton

Application to Forensic Anthropology

A
  • Juvenile skeleton has seperate diaphysis and epiphysis
  • Adult skeleton has whole fused bones
  • This helps determine age of skeletal remains
  • Female epiphyseal plates fuse about 1 to 2 years earlier than males
77
Q

Development and Aging of the Skeleton

Decreased tensile strength of bone

A
  • Reduced rate of protein (collagen) synthesis by osteoblasts
  • Relative amount of inorganic material increases
  • Become brittle and susceptible to fracture
78
Q

Development and Aging of the Skeleton

Bone loss of calcium and other minerals

A
  • Bones thinner and weaker
79
Q

Development and Aging of the Skeleton

Osteopenia (insufficient ossification)

A
  • Occurs slightly in all people with age
  • Begins age 35 to 40
  • Osteoblast activty declines; osteoclast activty remains at previous levels
  • Vertebrae, jaw bones, epiphyses lose large amount of mass
  • Women lose more of their skeletal mass evert decade than men
80
Q

Development and Aging of the Skeletn

Osteoporosis

A
  • Reduced bone mass sufficent to compromise normal function
  • Occurs in a significant percentage of older individulals
  • Due to reduced hormones with age; vitamin D, growth hormone, estrogen, and testosterone
81
Q

The Skull

is composed of

A
  • Cranial Bones
  • Facial Bones
82
Q

The Skull

Cranial Bones

A
  • Surround and enclose brain
  • Frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal bones
  • Base consits of ethmoid, sphenoid
83
Q

The Skull

Facial Bones

A
  • Form the face
  • Protect enterances to digestive and respiratory systems
  • Give shape and individuality to the face
  • ## From part of orbit and nasal cavities, support the teeth, provide attachment sides for muscles of facial expressions and chewing
84
Q

Anatomy of the Skull

Paranasal Sinuses

A
  • Air-filled chambers open into nasal cavity
  • Mucous membrane humidifies and warms inhaled air
  • Casue skull bones to be lighter
  • Provide resonance to voice
85
Q

Vertebrae

A
  • 24 indiviual vertebrae plus fused scarum and coccyx
  • 5 divisions or regions
  • Identfied by capital letter for region followed by numerical subscript
  • Indicates sequence from superior to inferior locations
86
Q

Cervial Verterbrae

A
  • From bones of the neck
  • 7 vertebrae, C1-C7
  • C1 articulates with occpital condyles
87
Q

Thoracic Vertebrae

A
  • From superior region of the back
  • Each articulates laterally with one or two pairs or ribs
  • 12 vertebrae, T1-T12
88
Q

Lumbar Vertebrae

A
  • Form inferior concave region (“small”) of the back
  • 5 vertebrae, L1-L5
89
Q

Vertebrae

Sacrum

A
  • Formed from 5 sacral vertebrae, S1-S5
  • Fused into single structure by late 20’s
  • Laterally articulates with 2 hip bones
90
Q

Vertebrae

Coccyx (tailbone)

A
  • Formed from 4 coccygeal vertebrae: Co1-Co4
  • Start to unite during puberty
91
Q

Spinal Curvatures

Cervical, Throacic, Lumbar, and Sacral Curvatures

A
  • Gives column some flexibility
  • Better support weight of the body than a straight spine
92
Q

Abnormal Spinal Curvatures

Hyperkyphosis

A
  • Exaggerated thoracic curavture
  • Produces hunchback look
  • May result form osteoporosis
93
Q

Abnormale Spinal Curvatures

Hyperlordosis

A
  • Exaggerated lumber curvature, swayback
  • May result from added abdominal weight
94
Q

Abnormal Spinal Curvatures

Scoliosis

A
  • Abnormal lateral curvature
  • May require back brace or surgery
95
Q

Vertebral Anatomy

Body

A

Thick anterior weight-bearing structure

96
Q

Vertebral Anatomy

Vertebral Arch

A

Posterior to body, protects spinal cord

97
Q

Vertebral Anatomy

Vertebral Foramen

A

Opening enclosed by body with vertebral arch

98
Q

Vertebral Anatomy

Vertebral Canal

A

Formed by stacked verterbal foramina; contains the spinal cord

99
Q

Vertebral Anatomy

Intervertebral Foramina

A

Lateral openings between adjacent vertebrae; passageways for spinal nerves extending to body

100
Q

Vertebral Anatomy

Vertebral Arch

A
  • Composed of 2 pedicles and 2 laminae
  • Pedicles originate from posterolateral margins of body
  • Laminae extend posteromedially from posterior edge of pedicle
101
Q

Vertebral Anatomy

Spinour Process

A

Projects posteriorly from laminae junction

102
Q

Vertebral Anatomy

Tranverse Processes

A
  • Lateral projections on both sides of vertebral arch
103
Q

Vertebral Anatomy

Superior and Inferior Articular Processes

A

Originate at junction between pedicles and laminae; each has a smooth surface, articular facet; Inferior facet articulates with superior facet of nect inferior vertebra

104
Q

Vertebral Anatomy

Intervertebral Discs

A
  • Pads of fibrocartilage seperating vertebral bodies
  • Shock absorbers between vertebral bodies
  • Allows vertebral column to bend
105
Q

How to Distinguish Vertebrae Types

Cervical Vertebrae

A
  • Kidney-bean-shaped bodies
  • Relatively small and light
  • Distinguished by transverse formina in transverse processes (houses vertebral artery and vein)
106
Q

How to Distinguish Vertebrae Types

Thoracic Vertebrae

A
  • Heart-shped bodies
  • Distinguished by Costal facets or demifacets (on lateral side of body and on sides of transverse processes)
  • Spinous processes are long and project inferiorly
107
Q

How to Distinguish Vertebrae Types

Lumber Vertebrae

A
  • Largest vertebrae with thicker, oval body
  • Bear most of the weight of the body
  • Large, thick, squared off spinous processes

BIOL1046 Human Biology II (14 decks)

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