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AP Psychology > Unit 4 > Flashcards

Unit 4 Flashcards

1
Q

Learning

A

the process of acquiring through experience new information or behaviors

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2
Q

Associative learning

A

learning that certain events occurs together

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3
Q

Respondent behavior

A

behavior that occurs an automatic response to some stimulus

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4
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher

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5
Q

Operant Behavior

A

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

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6
Q

Classical Conditioning

A

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

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7
Q

Stimulus-Response Learning

A

conditioning is based on the premise that behavior can be learned or modified through a stimulus or response

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8
Q

Ivan Pavlov

A

Father of classical conditioning

Russian psychologist who was studying digestion in dogs

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9
Q

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A

stimulus that causes a response that is automatic, not learned

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10
Q

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

A

response that occurs naturally after the UCS

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11
Q

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A

stimulus that produces no specific response than focusing attentions

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12
Q

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A

learned stimulus that results in response after a period of training

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13
Q

Conditioned Response (CR)

A

learned response to the CS

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14
Q

Higher Order Conditioning

A

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus

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15
Q

Acquisition

A

Idea that CR occurs gradually and is strengthened as a result

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16
Q

Discrimination

A

Ability to respond differently to similar but distinct stimuli

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17
Q

Generalization

A

Responding similarly to a range of similar stimuli

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18
Q

Extinction

A

Gradual disappearance of CR over time

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19
Q

Spontaneous Recovery

A

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

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20
Q

Reinforcement

A

any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

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21
Q

Shaping

A

operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

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22
Q

Positive reinforcement

A

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers

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23
Q

Negative reinforcement

A

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli

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24
Q

Primary reinforcer

A

unlearned reinforcers, innate

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25
Q

Conditioned (secondary) reinforcer

A

stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

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26
Q

Reinforcement Schedules

A

A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

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27
Q

Continuous reinforcement schedule

A

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

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28
Q

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

A

reinforcing a response only part of the time

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29
Q

Fixed-ratio schedule

A

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a set number of responses

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30
Q

Variable-ratio schedule

A

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

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31
Q

Fixed-interval schedule

A

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

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32
Q

Variable-interval schedule

A

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable intervals

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33
Q

Punishment

A

An event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

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34
Q

Positive punishment

A

decreasing a behavior by adding something undesirable

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35
Q

Negative punishment

A

decreasing a behavior by removing something desirable

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36
Q

Preparedness

A

a biological predisposition to learn associations such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value

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37
Q

John Garcia

A

taste aversion

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38
Q

Instinctive drift

A

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

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39
Q

Robert Rescorla

A

Contingency Theory

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40
Q

Contingency Theory

A

for learning to take place, a stimulus must provide the organism with a reliable signal that certain events will take place

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41
Q

Latent Learning

A

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

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42
Q

Cognitive Map

A

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment

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43
Q

Insight Learning

A

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution

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44
Q

Intrinsic Motivation

A

desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

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45
Q

Extrinsic Motivation

A

desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishments

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46
Q

Coping Mechanisms

A

Approaches to deal with stressors and challenges

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47
Q

Problem-focused coping

A

attempting to alleviate stress directly - by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor

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48
Q

Emotion-focused coping

A

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction

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49
Q

Martin Seligman

A

Learned Helplessness

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50
Q

Learned helplessness

A

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or person learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

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51
Q

External Locus of Control

A

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control

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52
Q

Internal Locus of Control

A

the perception that we control our own fate

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53
Q

Self-control

A

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for longer-term rewards

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54
Q

Observational (Social) Learning

A

Learning by observing others

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55
Q

Modeling

A

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

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56
Q

Vicarious Learning

A

an observer views and then models

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57
Q

Vicarious Reinforcement

A

can also see the consequences of a behavior

58
Q

Albert Bandura

A

Pioneering researcher of observational learning
bobo doll experiment

59
Q

Social Cognitive Theory

A

Describes the influences of individual experiences, the actions of others, and environmental factors on behaviors

Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation

60
Q

Self-Efficacy

A

degree to which a person believes in his or her own ability to complete tasks or each goals and influence situations

61
Q

Mirror Neurons

A

Frontal lobe neurons that show some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe others doing so

62
Q

Prosocial effects of observational learning

A

positive, constructive, helpful behavior

63
Q

antisocial effects of observational learning

A

negative, critical, hurtful behavior

64
Q

Social development

A

looks at the influence of others on the development of a person

65
Q

Attachment

A

an emotional tie with another person

66
Q

Attachment bond

A

emotional attachment between infant and caregiver

67
Q

Konrad Lorenz

A

imprinting

68
Q

Harry Harlow

A

The Nature of Love Experiment

69
Q

Mary Ainsworth

A

The Strange Situation

70
Q

Critical period

A

optimal period when certain events must take place to facilitate proper development

71
Q

Imprinting

A

bond to first moving object seen

72
Q

Secure Attachment

A

They explore their environment in presence of their mothers
When their mothers leave, they show distress but ultimately know their mother will return

73
Q

Insecure Attachment

A

These children cling to their mothers or caregivers and are less likely to explore the environment
More likely to be distressed (anxious-ambivalent) and resentful when mother returns
Avoidant children turn away from their mother when they return

74
Q

Temperament

A

A person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

75
Q

Anxiously attached

A

crave acceptance but are wary of possible rejection

76
Q

Avoidance attached

A

experience discomfort getting close to others

77
Q

Self-Concept

A

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in answer to the question “Who am I?”

78
Q

Diana Baumrind

A

Parenting Styles

79
Q

Authoritative

A

Demanding and responsive
Responsive to the input and needs of their children, but also sets rules and expectations
Children tend to be well-balanced, have good decision-making abilities and have high self-esteem

80
Q

Authoritarian

A

Impose rules and expect obedience
Children often cannot make decisions for themselves and when they do they aren’t usually good ones
Tend to display lower levels of self-esteem
Have a brain that overreacts when they make mistakes

81
Q

Permissive

A

Make few demands, set few limits, and use little punishment
Children tend to have lower self-esteem, be more immature, and be more aggressive

82
Q

Negligent

A

Neither demanding or responsive
Careless, inattentive
Children often have poor academic performance and act like adults prematurely

83
Q

Cognitive Development

A

The process of intellectual growth a child goes through to develop information-processing abilities, perceptual skills, language learning, understanding concepts, and problem-solving abilities

84
Q

Cognition

A

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

85
Q

Jean Piaget

A

Swiss psychologist who studied children’s cognition

86
Q

4 stages of cognitive development

A

Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete operational
Formal operational

Mnemonic: Students of Psychology Can Fly

87
Q

Schema

A

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Piaget believed all knowledge begins with schema

88
Q

how do we expand schema

A

through assimilation and accommodations

89
Q

Assimilation

A

we try to fit new objects into already known schemas

90
Q

Accommodations

A

we adjust our schema to fit new information

91
Q

Sensorimotor (Birth to 2 Years)

A

Exploring the world with senses
Develops object permanence around 8-10 months
Develops stranger anxiety around 8 months
Circular reactions

92
Q

object permanence

A

Recognizing that objects continue to exist when no longer in sight

93
Q

stranger anxiety

A

Crying or being uncomfortable around someone they don’t know

94
Q

Circular reactions

A

repeating a pleasurable action over and over

95
Q

Preoperational Period (2-7 Years)

A

Language develops with the ability to think in this stage
Cannot understand conservation
Pretend play
Irreversibility
Egocentrism

96
Q

conservation

A

Awareness that physical quantities remain constant in spite of changes in their shape

97
Q

Irreversibility

A

cannot picture reversing an action

98
Q

Egocentrism

A

limited ability to share another’s viewpoint

99
Q

Concrete Operational (7-11)

A

Can thinking logically, but not abstractly
Hierarchical classification
Masters conservation and reversibility

100
Q

Hierarchical classification

A

can classify objects into different categories

101
Q

Formal Operational (11-adulthood)

A

Gains the ability to think and reason abstractly
Can start to predict things and think hypothetically

102
Q

Lev Vygotsky

A

Russian psychologist who emphasized how the child’s mind grows through interaction with the social environment

103
Q

The Social Child experiment

A

Lev Vygotsky
believed children were essentially “apprentices”
Parents and teacher provide scaffolds to help children step to higher levels of thinking

104
Q

scaffolds

A

A framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking

105
Q

Zone of proximal development

A

the zone between what a child can and cannot do - what a child can do with help

106
Q

Erik Erikson

A

Theory of Psychosocial Development

107
Q

Identity

A

our sense of self

108
Q

Trust vs Mistrust

A

Birth to 1 year
Resolution = hope
If infant needs are met, a sense of basic trust develops; if trust is not attained, the child becomes fearful of others

109
Q

Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt

A

1-3 years
Resolution = will
Child develops sense of independence, or self-doubt develops

110
Q

Initiative vs Guilt

A

3-6 years
Resolution = purpose
Child begins to initiate tasks and plan in play, or initiative is held back by guilt/failure

111
Q

Industry vs Inferiority

A

6-12 years
Resolution = competence
Child discovers their academic abilities and social relationships or develops feelings of inferiority

112
Q

Identity vs Role Confusion

A

12-18 years
Resolution = fidelity
Teenagers develop a sense of identity or confusion about self occurs

113
Q

Intimacy vs Isolation

A

18-35 years
Resolution = love
Young adults develop intimate relationships, or they experience isolation

114
Q

Generativity vs Stagnation

A

35-65 years
Resolution = care
Adults seek to generate a legacy that can be passed to future generations, or they struggle with stagnation

115
Q

Integrity vs Despair

A

65-death
Resolution = wisdom
Older adults contemplate their life and either feel a sense of integrity and happiness, or they feel despair and failure

116
Q

Social clock

A

the culturally preferred timing of social events, such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

117
Q

Intimacy

A

forming close relationships

118
Q

Generativity

A

being productive and supporting future generations

119
Q

Elisabeth Kubler-Ross

A

5 stages of grief

120
Q

5 stages of grief

A

Denial & Isolation
Anger
Bargaining
Depression
Acceptance

121
Q

Developmental psychology

A

studying the physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

122
Q

Prenatal Development

A

Starts with conception
Extends from conception to birth
Typically lasts 9 months
Divided into 3 stages
Germinal stage
Embryonic stage
Fetal stage

123
Q

Germinal Stage

A

1st phase of prenatal development
Zygote is created through fertilization
Placenta forms during this stage

124
Q

Embryonic Stage

A

2nd phase of prenatal development
Lasts from 2 weeks until end of 2nd month
Zygote becomes embryo
Most miscarriages occur during this stage

125
Q

Fetal Stage

A

3rd phase of prenatal development
Lasts from 2 months through birth
Organism is now called a fetus
Sex organs begin to form
Between 23 and 25 weeks, fetus reaches threshold of viability

126
Q

threshold of viability

A

age at which a baby can survive in event of premature birth

127
Q

Teratogen

A

any agent that causes a birth defect

128
Q

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)

A

a cluster of abnormalities that occurs in babies of mothers who drink alcoholic beverages during pregnancy

129
Q

Newborn/Infancy

A

Newborn = 0-2 months
Infancy = birth - 18 months
Babies are born with several abilities/behaviors
Maturation

130
Q

Maturation

A

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

131
Q

Reflexes

A

involuntary physical response to a stimulus

132
Q

Moral development

A

the gradual development of an individual’s concept of right or wrong, such as religious values, social attitudes, and certain behavior

133
Q

Morals

A

principles or rules of right conduct or distinction between right and wrong

134
Q

Lawrence Kholberg

A

moral development in children
Heinz Dilemma

135
Q

Level 1 - Preconventional
Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience

A

Obeys rules in order to avoid punishment
Determines a sense of right and wrong by what is punished and what is not

136
Q

Level 1 - Preconventional
Stage 2: Reward & Self-Interest

A

Individual will do what’s best for them
Put their needs above anybody else

137
Q

Level 2 - Conventional
Stage 3: Good Boy/Good Girl

A

All about pleasing others

138
Q

Level 2 - Conventional
Stage 4: Law and Order

A

Believes in rules that should not be changed
Respects authority

139
Q

Level 3 - Postconventional
Stage 5: Social Contract

A

Society agrees on certain rules, but it can be changed when necessary

140
Q

Level 3 - Postconventional
Stage 6: Universal Human Ethics

A

What is the right thing to do despite social rules/customs
Belief that all humans have value

141
Q

Carol Gilligan

A

Woman psychologist who worked under Kohlberg
Critiqued Kohlerberg’s work b/c he only included privileged white boys
Ethics of Care

142
Q

Ethics of Care

A

Women’s patterns of moral development were based on relationships and feelings of care and responsibility for others

Preconventional - goal is individual survival
Conventional - self sacrifice is goodness
Postconventional - principle of nonviolence: don’t hurt others or oneself

AP Psychology (9 decks)

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