Unit 4

Question 1

What is the major goal of research?

Answer 1

To gain information about different variables

Question 2

When is a sample representative?

Answer 2

when it’s a good reflection of a wider population
-> results can be generalised

Question 3

What are the factors that make a sample representative?

Answer 3

Suitability
Sample size Accessibility

Question 4

Suitability

Answer 4

Inclusion and exclusion criteria based on demographic characteristics

Question 5

Participant characteristics

Answer 5

major demographic characteristics
important top-specific characteristics (e.g. acheivement level in studies)

Question 6

H0

Answer 6

Null Hypothesis
No difference between groups

Question 7

H1

Answer 7

Alternative hypothesis
difference between groups

Question 8

Why is sample size essential for the research design?

Answer 8

Increase in sample size -> increase in power
-> increases probability of rejecting null hypothesis

Question 9

Are sample size and power linearly related?

Answer 9

No
-> too small ->low probability of rejecting null hypothesis
-> too large -> unnecessarily increases cost
=> after 90% slow increase in power for increasing sample size

Question 10

Power

Answer 10

probability of correctly rejecting null hypothesis
doesnt statistically differ between study groups

Question 11

What are accessibility sampling procedures useful for?

Answer 11

to describe:
- procedures for selecting participants
- setting and location of data collection
- agreements and payments to participants
- institutional review board agreements, ethical standards met, safety monitoring

Question 12

Probability sampling

Answer 12

each population element has known chance of being chosen (above 0)

Question 13

Non-probability samples

Answer 13

researcher can’t specify probabilities

Question 14

What does probability sampling require?

Answer 14

a sampling frame
-> list of all members of population

Question 15

Subtypes of probability sampling

Answer 15

Simple random sampling
Systematic sampling
Cluster sampling
Stratified sampling

Question 16

Simple random sampling

Answer 16

Properties:
- population of N objects included in sampling frame
- sample of n objects
- all possible samples of n equally likely

Question 17

Systematic sampling

Answer 17

list of population created
every kth member selected
-> e.g. every 3rd person

Question 18

Cluster sampling

Answer 18

every member of a population assigned to one group (cluster)
one cluster used as sample (selected via other probability method)
only individuals within cluster surveyed
doesnt require sampling frame

Question 19

stratified sampling

Answer 19

population divided into strata (groups)
within each group probability sample selected

Question 20

What’s the difference between cluster sampling and stratified sampling?

Answer 20

Stratified sampling: includes elements fro. each stratum
Cluster sampling: only elements from sampled cluster

Question 21

Subtypes of non-probability samples

Answer 21

Judgemental sampling
Convenience sampling
Quota sampling

Question 22

Judgemental sampling

Answer 22

Sample members chosen based on researchers knowledge and judgement
-> chances that results will be highly accurate with minimal margin of error

Question 23

Convenience sampling

Answer 23

made from people of are easy to reach and willing to participate

Question 24

Quota sampling

Answer 24

Individuals chosen according to specific characteristics or traits
care taken to maintain correct proportion representative of population
(e.g. 45% male, 55% female)

Question 25

What is data collection?

Answer 25

Process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest in established systematic fashion allows to answer stated research question

Question 26

What are different types of survey techniques?

Answer 26

Interviews Questionnaires

Question 27

What is the survey method important for?

Answer 27

to study relationships among variables and ways that attitudes and behaviours change over time

Question 28

Which potential issue do we face in surveys?

Answer 28

different biases

Question 29

What is the most common bias?

Answer 29

social desirability bias (aka "faking good")

Question 30

Social desirability bias

Answer 30

participants answer in most socially accepted way -> underreport undesirable behaviours -> overreport positive behaviours

Question 31

Interview

Answer 31

asking questions and getting answers forms: individual face to face; face to face group interviews

Question 32

What are the advantages of interviews?

Answer 32

Carried out by trained researcher Involves social interaction Collecting information

Question 33

What are the disadvantages of interviews?

Answer 33

high costs small samples

Question 34

Types of interviews

Answer 34

structured: wording, content and sequence of questions prepared semi-structured: writing, content and sequence of question structured modifiable unstructured: a few broad questions -> open, informal and spontaneous discussion

Question 35

Types of questions

Answer 35

closed questions: fixed set of responses open questions: express thoughts in own words

Question 36

Questionnaires

Answer 36

research instrument consisting of series of questions to gather information

Question 37

What is measured in questionnaires?

Answer 37

latent traits (e.g. personality traits) health component (e.g. sleep, mood) attitudes (e.g. towards immigration) index (e.g. social status) preferences (e.g. political party) behaviours (e.g. food consumption) facts (e.g. gender)

Question 38

How are closed questions coded?

Answer 38

In likert scale -> responses coded along range measuring positive or negative response

Question 39

forced choice questions

Answer 39

makes survey respondents choose option idicating definitive opinion

Question 40

Strengths of quesstionnaires

Answer 40

completed by participant easily applied large samples

Question 41

Weaknesses of questionnaires

Answer 41

low response rates misunderstandings random responses

Question 42

open-ended questions

Answer 42

require elaboration on points

Question 43

mixed questionnaires

Answer 43

closed and open-ended questions

Question 44

Observation

Answer 44

Greater objectivity than surveys Data collected on observable behaviours more complicated variables operated as observable behaviours

Question 45

What is a potential risk during observations?

Answer 45

people may change behaviours if observed

Question 46

What do observations require

Answer 46

Period of habituation Careful participant observation Objectivity of observer Index of observations Recording of sequence

Question 47

What is a performance test?

Answer 47

Index requiring examinee to perform task -> ensures greater fidelity

Question 48

Key features of performance tests

Answer 48

control over variables careful measurement establishing cause-effect relationship

Question 49

What does psychometrics focus on?

Answer 49

measuring one's cognitive abilities

Question 50

What are performance psychometrics?

Answer 50

standardised measures of particular psychological variables

Question 51

Internal structure of performance tests

Answer 51

One-dimensional: measures single factor and gives total score Multidimensional: measures several factors, gives several scores

Question 52

What is Cronbach's alpha?

Answer 52

measure of internal consistency measure of scale reliability