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Tectonics > Unit 4 > Flashcards

Unit 4 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is meant by a risk?

A

the probability of a hazard occurring and creating loss of lives and livelihoods

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2
Q

Why may people place themselves within the risk area of a hazard?

A
  • hazards are unpredictable
  • lack of alternative locations to live
  • economic benefits outweigh the cost e.g. good for agriculture near volcano
  • optimistic perception of hazard risk ‘it won’t happen to me’ attitude
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3
Q

What can the level of risk by altered by?

A

human conditions and actions

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4
Q

What is meant by vulnerability?

A

the conditions determined by social, economic and environmental factors which increase the susceptibility of an individual or community, to the impacts of hazards

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5
Q

the level of hazard risk can be measured by using what equation?

A

risk = frequency (and/or) mag of hazard x level of vulnerability
(DIVIDED)
capacity of population to cope

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6
Q

What are some of the factors that make an area more likely to be at risk from hazards?

A
  • LEDC’s
  • high population density
  • high frequency/magnitude of hazard
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7
Q

What are some of the factors that make an area less likely to be at risk from hazards?

A
  • MEDC’s
  • low population density
  • low frequency/magnitude of hazard
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8
Q

What do the PAR models of vulnerability show?

A

PAR = Pressure and release
- explains how levels of vulnerability can be increased/decreased by 3 key factors:
1. causes
2. pressures
3. conditions

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9
Q

What is the equation for risk, using the pressure model?

A

risk = hazard x vulnerability

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10
Q

What does the release model demonstrate?

A

how to reduce vulnerability, in terms of adaptation and mitigation

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11
Q

What are the three ways to reduce vulnerability to a hazard?

A

1.monitoring
2. predicting
3. warning

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12
Q

Why is reducing the vulnerability to a hazard important?

A
  • warn people to evacuate
  • prepare for a hazard event
  • manage the impacts more effectively
  • help insurance companies assess risk
  • prioritise government spending
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13
Q

Why is it difficult to reduce vulnerability to people for an earthquake?

A

impossible to predict, or pinpoint where it may strike

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14
Q

What is the reason for monitoring earthquakes in the following ways?
- Laser reflector
- Creep meter
- Gravity meter
- Till meter?

A

monitor small movements along the fault

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15
Q

What is the reason for using a strain meter to monitor earthquake prone areas?

A

measures changes in the stress in rocks

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16
Q

What is the reason for using well levels and groundwater measurements to monitor earthquake prone areas?

A

monitors groundwater movements and height of the water table, can change before an earthquake

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17
Q

What is the reason for using a radon gas meter to monitor earthquake prone areas?

A

levels of radon gas dissolved in water can increase before an earthquake

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18
Q

What is the reason for using a magnetometer to monitor earthquake prone areas?

A

changes in the earth’s magnetic field have been recorded before an earthquake

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19
Q

What is the reason for using a seismograph to monitor earthquake prone areas?

A

recording smaller after shocks

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20
Q

Why are so many of the techniques to monitor earthquakes limited to conservative plate margins?

A
  • builds up the most pressure
  • plates need to be moving away from each other
  • these techniques have limited applications
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21
Q

What is the case study for prediction?

A

California’s San Andreas fault

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22
Q

What is the current predicted likelihood of another earthquake happening in the San Francisco Bay region?

A

70% (+/- 10%) for one or more mag 6.7< earthquakes from 2000 to 2030

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23
Q

What is the TerraShake project? When was it created?

A

began in 2005, National Science foundation created simulations of earthquakes along faults to predict the impacts

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24
Q

How could the predictions from the TerraShake Project reduce vulnerability?

A

can asses the impacts of how many earthquakes, what areas will most likely be affected
- can assess what and where there will be ground shaking hazards

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25
Who created the TerraShake project?
Southern California Earthquake Centre (SCEC)
26
Environmental change = Seismic activity What is the reason for monitoring this, in terms of a volcanic eruption?
- seismic data over time may show an increase in activity - if earthquakes are migrating towards the surface, could suggest rising magma fracturing rocks
27
Environmental change = Ground deformation What is the reason for monitoring this, in terms of a volcanic eruption?
- till meters and laser measures can detect minute changes in slope angle and the distance between points, suggesting that rising magma is displacing the ground above
28
Environmental change = Gas emissions What is the reason for monitoring this, in terms of a volcanic eruption?
- ground based, airborne and satellite detectors can measure changes in the amount and composition of gas measures - if the gases pass through lakes, changes in the colour and acidity can be recorded
29
Environmental change = thermal changes What is the reason for monitoring this, in terms of a volcanic eruption?
- detectors including satellites, can register changes in temps on the surface and in lakes = increase in activity - increasing discharge from hot springs and death of vegetation = clear signs
30
Environmental change = Lahar monitoring What is the reason for monitoring this, in terms of a volcanic eruption?
- observations of lahars, including by remote video cams and other techniques recording vibrations from an active lahar = short term warning
31
How does NASA believe that satellites can improve the prediction of eruptions?
- can use them to measure ground temps - detect heat info - can detect early re-activation of volcanoes - gives communities time to prepare - can help preserve an areas water supply
32
What is the Pacific Tsunami Warning and Mitigation system?
Known as DART (Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis)
33
How does the DART warning system warn the countries around the pacific of tsunamis?
transmit standard mode data, containing 24 estimated sea-level height obs at 15mm intervals, once every 6 hours - can detect from very near the earthquake source
34
Once the warning has been issued from the DART system, how do countries reduce the vulnerability of at-risk populations?
having an evacuation route, travelling to higher ground, education
35
Referring back to the PAR models, what factors may still make some people vulnerable to a tsunami, following a warning to a country?
- low economic development - quality of planning and evacuation routes - quality of governance
36
What are the three categories for responses to tectonic hazards?
- modify the event = in terms of people and property - modify the vulnerability = impacts on people and property - modify the loss = emergency services, short and long term aid
37
How can the event of an earthquake be modified? (modify the event)
An earthquake cannot be controlled, however there is a hazard resistant building design = aseismic buildings (earthquake resistant)
38
What are the two types of aseismic buildings?
high tech and low tech
39
What are high tech aseismic buildings?
- generally used in public settings e.g. schools and hospitals involves: - steel frames which can sway during earth movements - automatic window shutters to prevent falling glass - rubber shock absorbers at the base of building to absorb earths tremors
40
What factor affects whether aseismic designs are used in a country?
- level of development ( generally only wealthy economically developed nations can afford) - in need of a strong governance e.g. government enforce strict building codes (Haiti vs America)
41
What is a key problem to high tech solutions for an earthquake?
a lot of a cities old buildings will need 'retrofitting' to bring them to a high standard
42
What are low tech solutions?
the development of low cost aseismic buildings, help people in poorer nations
43
What is an example of an earthquake that lead to new low tech solutions being implemented?
Pakistan, following the 2005 earthquake that killed 85,000 people and left 3 million homeless
44
What are the new low tech solutions being used in Pakistan?
2 phase program: - Phase 1 = involved providing winter shelters urgently needed by villagers - Phase 2 = set up and run a technical resource and training centre for reconstruction of houses
45
What was the low tech solution for earthquake resistant housing in Pakistan?
houses before used stones and mud, wanted to use cement motar between the stones instead, make octogonal houses to reduce damage - suggest roofs should be made of mud and stone to keep it light - protect from the rain using asphalt
46
What is an example of a building failure during an earthquake?
Turkish earthquake 6th Feb 2023
47
What were the impacts of the 2023 Turkey earthquakes?
7.8 and 7.5 magnitude scale, destroyed over 6000 buildings and killed over 37,000 people
48
What was the building failure during the Turkey 2023 earthquakes and who was to blame?
following previous disasters, Turkish construction regulations were tightened and updated in 2018, so areas could use high quality concrete reinforced with steel bars - thought that corruption has led to many buildings not being constructed to the new standards
49
Which particular volcanic hazard can be controlled to some extent?
Lava flows
50
What is the example for controlling a lava flow?
in 1973 Eldafell eruption in Iceland, seawater sprayed onto the lava flow was successfully used to cool and solidify the lava and stop it advancing to the harbour
51
What is an example of explosives being used to control lava flow?
Mt Etna in Sicily to create artificial channels and barriers to divert lava flows away from villages - such as Rocca in the 1983, 1991 and 2001 eruptions
52
What is an example of a hard engineering option to limit the impacts of tsunamis?
high onshore walls for protection
53
What is the case study that used high onshore walls for protection against tsunami's?
After 2011, Japanese gov set aside $12 bn to repair and build nearly 400km of sea walls - rising up to 14.7m in some areas - some of the foundations were 25m deep
54
What are other strategies that could be developed to reduce the effects of a tsunami wave?
- plan effective evacuation routes - have detectors in the ocean to provide a warning e.g. DART system - encourage people to take out insurance to protect their homes
55
Are expensive hard engineering strategies an option for all countries?
no, low economically developed countries will not have the funds necessary to fund these strategies, unless they are provided with aid
56
What are the two ways in which you can modify the vulnerability?
- Land use planning and zoning - Community Preparedness and Education
57
How can land use planning and zoning modify the vulnerability of a tectonic hazard?
- tectonic hazard risk can be regulated by building codes - make sure key public buildings are placed in low risk areas - prevent building in areas in direct path of lava flows -rezone the coastline of tsunami prone areas
58
What is the case study where they rezoned the coastline of a tsunami prone area?
Crescent City, California the area along the water front has been developed into public parks and houses and businesses moving to higher ground following a tsunami in 1964
59
How can community preparedness and education modify the vulnerability of a tectonic hazard?
- educate communities on what to do after an event and how to be prepared - having regular drills - very important for earthquakes
60
What is the case study for modifying the vulnerability to a tectonic hazard (specifically earthquakes)?
Shake out, USA based organisation, but provides earthquake preparedness education and resources to countries around the world
61
What are the Key strategies talked about by Shake out that everyone can adopt to be prepared for an earthquake?
- remove objects off shelves and higher fixtures - secure possessions to the wall - have an emergency pack and plan how to meet others - learn how to protect yourself in any environment - prepare for aftershocks
62
Why are community preparedness and education strategies easier to implement in higher income countries?
- people have more educated backgrounds - usually good governance, willing to help their citizens - have money and resources to plan and educate on mass scale
63
What are the two key ways to modify the loss to a tectonic hazard?
insurance and aid
64
How does insurance modify the loss to a tectonic hazard?
- mainly available for wealthier nations - some insurance companies will not insure properties or businesses in high risk areas (ensures you are financially protected after disaster)
65
How does aid modify the loss to a tectonic hazard?
particularly important in poorer nations where they are less likely to have planning and aid in place - aid is provided from govs, NGO's, and private donations
66
What is an example of how the UK provides aid?
co-ordinates aid through the Disaster's Emergency Committee (DEC)
67
How does the DEC work?
brings together 15 leading aid charities to raise funds quickly and efficiently at times of need overseas - since 1963 have raised £2.4 million, saving lives and rebuilding communities
68
What is the hazard disaster management cycle?
identifies a number of stages in the management of a hazard, from long to short term, picture on phone 22.4.25

Tectonics (4 decks)

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