Unit 4

Question 1

What does Encoding refer to?

Exam

Answer 1

the process of acquiring information or placing it into memory

Question 2

What does Retrieval refer to?

Exam

Answer 2

the process of recovering previously encoded information

Question 3

What is Step 1 of the Three-store model?

Answer 3

Information enters the processing system through modality-specific sensory stores

Question 4

What is Step 2 of the Three-store model?

Answer 4

Information proceeds to a limited short-term or primary memory

Question 5

What is Step 1 of the Three-store model?

Answer 5

Information enter a permanent and extensive long-term or secondary memory

Question 6

What is the key to successful encoding in the Three-store model?

Answer 6

attention

Question 7

What does attention as a key to successful encoding mean?

Answer 7

the learner has to pay conscious attention to the information

Question 8

Why do we need to pay attention to successfully encode?

Answer 8

in order for informatino to proceed to progessively more capacious and durable stores

Question 9

What are the problems with the three-store model?

Answer 9

Short-term memory’s capacity, coding, and forgetting vary depending on people, materials, and tasks — not as fixed as the model suggests

Question 10

What is Memory considered to be?

Answer 10

the by-product of such active perceptual and cognitive processes

Question 11

The more … the information is processed, the more well retained the information will be?

Answer 11

The more deeply or meaningfully the information is processed, the more well retained the information will be

Question 12

Encoding of information

What must our memory ultimately be?

Answer 12

represented in the brain by complex networks of neurones

Question 13

Encoding of information

What happens when a particular network is active?

Answer 13

we reexperience the event or recollect the fact

Question 14

Encoding information

How are aspects bound together duing the encoding and retrieval process if the different aspects of an encoded object or event are stored in somewhat different regions of the brain?

Answer 14

One possibilty: all sensory modalities first represent and store rather literal copies of the surface aspects of objects (color, size, shape)

Question 15

Encoding of information

What do subsequent interactinos with the same objects reveal?

Answer 15

the relations among the sensory elements, as well as “deeper” aspects such as function, significance and value

Question 16

Encoding of information

What is the cognitive system organized hierarchically with by the view that sensory modalities store literal copies of the surface aspects of objects first?

Answer 16

• Lower levels representing sensory aspects
• Higher levels representing derived aspects (significance, meaning) of objects and events

Question 17

Encoding of information

How is memory encoding related to perception and comprehension?

Answer 17

They may be identical to those processes carried out primarily for the purposes of perception and comprehension.

Question 18

Encoding of information

What do memory retrieval processes represent?

Answer 18

The cognitive system’s best efforts to reinstate the same pattern of mental activity that occurred during the original experience.

Question 19

What is a central feature of Bartlett’s approach?

Answer 19

to stress the participants effort after meaning

Question 20

What are the characteristics of a remembered story/statement in Bartlett’s (1932) study?

Answer 20

shorter, more coherent, and tends to fit more closely with the participant’s own viewpoint.

Question 21

Barlett’s Approach

What do Subjects actively strive to? What do they try?

Answer 21

• they actively strive to discern the meaning of stimuli
• they try to capture the essence of the material presented

Question 22

Bartlett’s Approach

How did recall protocols in Bartlett’s (1932) study compare to summaries?

Answer 22

Recall protocols were indistinguishable from summaries, even when the story was present.

Question 23

Barlett’s Approach

What is a Schema?

Answer 23

A long-term structured representation of knowledge

Question 24

Barlett’s Approach

When are Schemas used?

Answer 24

used by the rememberer to make sense of new material and subsequently store and recall it

Question 25

# Barlett's Approach What is the development of a schema determined by?

Answer 25

Cultural influences

Question 26

# Barlett's Approach What do Cultural influences in turn determine?

Answer 26

the way in which material is encoded, stored and recalled

Question 27

# Barlett's Approach What were systematic errors and distortions produced in the participants recalls due to?

Answer 27

intrusion of their schematic knowledge

Question 28

# Barlett's Approach What can Schematic knowledge do?

Answer 28

distort recollections at a long retention interval (one week) but not a short one (five minutes)

Question 29

# Barlett's Approach What happens whenever contextual cues during encoding arous appropriate schemata?

Answer 29

memory is aided

Question 30

# Barlett's Approach What lasts longer in memory than more detailed information?

Answer 30

Schematic information

Question 31

# Role of meaning How does prior meaning affect memory in stimulus–response associationism?

Answer 31

Strong pre-existing word associations (e.g., bread–butter) make learning easier than unrelated pairs (e.g., lobster–symphony) -> clear instance of the influence of prior meaning on encoding

Question 32

What does Deese (1959) say about Role of meaning in Memory?

Answer 32

Words that were highly associated with each other were easier to recall than lists with few inter-word associations.

Question 33

What do Jenkins and Russell (1952) say about Role of meaning in memory?

Answer 33

Associated words (e.g. men, pen, den) tend to be recalled later on as a cluster

Question 34

# Role of meaning What do the findings of Deese, Jenkins and Russell indicate?

Answer 34

that participants, when encoding items in these experiments, were relating the words to one another, via their background knowledge prior to entering the experiment, demonstrating the influence of prior meaning on episodic encoding

Question 35

# Role of meaning What is Imagery (Paivio, 1965)? ## Footnote Exam

Answer 35

a way in which people try to tie new experiences they are encoding to things they already know

Question 36

# Role of meaning - imagery, Paivio what can the connection to already-known images provide? ## Footnote exam

Answer 36

a powerful basis for forming a new and highly accessible episodic memory

Question 37

# Role of meaning - Imagery, Paivio What does the extent to which a word evokes an image powerfully predict?

Answer 37

How well it would be remembered

Question 38

# Role of meaning - Paivio What does the Dual-coding hypothesis state?

Answer 38

highly imageable words are easy to learn because they can be encoded both visually and verbally

Question 39

# Role of meaning - Paivio How can the Dual-coding hypothesis help us recall memory?

Answer 39

If there are two routes to retrieval for imageable words or word pairs (eg. visual and verbal), if one route is lost the other might still survive and allow recall

Question 40

# Role of meaning - Paivio What was Paivios proposal ikn 1971?

Answer 40

That events are presented in 2 very different ways: - An analogue code - A symbolic code

Question 41

# Role of meaning - Paivio What does the analogue code preserve?

Answer 41

the physical features of the object or scene (e.g. an image of a cat under a table)

Question 42

# Role of meaning - Paivio What does the symbolic code provide?

Answer 42

a verbal description of the event (e.g. "the cat is under the table")

Question 43

# The role of meaning - Paivio What have researchers shown in support of Paivio's proposal 1971?

Answer 43

- Visual perception interferes with visual imagery - Visual perception interferes only negligibly with the mental manipulation of verbal material

Question 44

# Encoding operations What does the Picture superiority effect state?

Answer 44

Pictures are typically remembered much better than words

Question 45

# Picture superiority effect Which two independent codes are pictures more likely to be encoded and stored in?

Answer 45

- both verbal - imaginal codes

Question 46

# The role of meaning - Paivio What is the greater vulnerability of contextual information to forgetting most likely attributable to?

Answer 46

its receiving: - less attention - less comprehensive - less elaborate processing

Question 47

# Levels of processing What did Craik & Tulving (1975) study in their experiment?

Answer 47

How the depth of processing affects memory recognition.

Question 48

# Levels of processing - Craik and Tulving What are the 3 parts of the Methodology?

Answer 48

1. Semantic questions (sentence) 2. Questions relating to phonemics 3. Orthographic features

Question 49

# Levels of processing What are the Results of Craik and Tulving's study?

Answer 49

The greater the depth of processing had been on a word the better people were at correctly recognizing that they had seen it before on the list

Question 50

# Levels of processing What does the general principle of Levels of processing state? ## Footnote Exam

Answer 50

deeper and more elaborate processing leads to better memory

Question 51

# Levels of processing What is the effect? ## Footnote Exam

Answer 51

robust, reliable, very useful for anyone wanting to maximize their learning capacity

Question 52

# Encoding What does the Transfer-appropriate processing principle state? ## Footnote Exam

Answer 52

that for a test to reveal prior learning, the processing requirements of the test should match the processing conditions at encoding

Question 53

# Encoding - Transfer-appropriate processing What should the persons state ideally match? ## Footnote Exam

Answer 53

the state at retrieval should ideally match that at encoding in order to ensure retrieval of the encoded information

Question 54

# Encoding what can the encoding and retrieval of information be modulated by?

Answer 54

the external context when it is sufficiently rich and distinctive

Question 55

# Encoding What can be very beneficial to remembering at the time of retrieval?

Answer 55

reinstatement of the encoding context e.g. revisiting scene of the crime

Question 56

# Encoding operations What does the encoding specificity principle state?

Answer 56

a retrieval cue will be effective to the extent that information in the cue was incorporated in the trace of the target event at the time of its original encoding

Question 57

# Encoding operations What is an example for the encoding specificity principle?

Answer 57

if the word BRIDGE is encoded as an engineering structure, the subsequent cue "card game" will be ineffective, but the cue words "grider" or "span" would probably be quite effective

Question 58

# Encoding operations What does higher degree of overlap between study and test conditions?

Answer 58

higher memory performance

Question 59

# Encoding operations is compatibility between encoding and retrieval operations all that matters?

Answer 59

no, the depth (or type) of initial encoding also plays a major role

Question 60

# Encoding operations What does the type of initial encoding sets?

Answer 60

limits on the probability of later retrieval -> degree of relized potential depends on the compatibility between encoding and retrieval information

Question 61

# Encoding The greater the elaboration or extensiveness of one's encodings, the.... ## Footnote Exam

Answer 61

...better the subsequent memory

Question 62

# Encoding Why is deeper encoding better? ## Footnote Exam

Answer 62

Meaningful processing may produce more elaborate memory traces that link to many different concepts, yielding a memory that can be accessed in many different ways

Question 63

# Encoding Which sentences are remembered best and why?

Answer 63

the most complex sentences -> presumably because the complex sentences activated later, richer cognitive structures than did the simpler sentences

Question 64

# Encoding What are the two main types of rehearsal according to Craik and Lockhart in 1972?

Answer 64

1. Maintenance rehearsal 2. Elaborative rehearsal

Question 65

# Encoding What is Maintenance rehearsal?

Answer 65

Information is kept passively in mind (e.g. through rote repetition) -> involves continuing to process an item at the same level

Question 66

# Encoding What is Elaborative rehearsal?

Answer 66

the information is meaningfully related to other information, presented either previously or currently

Question 67

# Encoding What does the Elaborative rehearsal enhance?

Answer 67

delayed episodic memory

Question 68

# Encoding What are Longer spaced repeitions associated with?

Answer 68

higher levels of subsequent retention

Question 69

# Encoding what is more likely to be encoded somehwat differently from how they were on their first presentation?

Answer 69

re-presented after long intervals

Question 70

# Encoding What might the encoding variability when re-presenting after long intervals may be associated with?

Answer 70

- richer and more elaborate encoding of the item -> supports better retention

Question 71

# Encoding operations In terms of what should information ideally be encoded?

Answer 71

of both: - item specific features - associative features

Question 72

# Encoding operations What are Item specific features?

Answer 72

characteristics that are unique to a particular stimulus

Question 73

# Encoding operations What are Associative features?

Answer 73

characteristics shared with other information presented either concurrently or previously

Question 74

# Encoding What is Integration?

Answer 74

The process of linking new information to pre-existing knowledge structures, such as prior schemas, concepts and events

Question 75

# Encoding - Integration What may processing be advantageous for?

Answer 75

the very simple reason that new experiences undergo integration with things that are already successfully stored in memory

Question 76

# Encoding What do we understand under organization in encoding?

Answer 76

people actively and inevitably seek meaning in new experiences -> they impose their own organization on the events they perceive in the world (e.g. through schemas)

Question 77

# Encoding - Organization what did people tend to do to remember?

Answer 77

produce words in clusters or chunks and recall them in the same order trial after trial

Question 78

# Encoding - Organization What is the Subjective organization?

Answer 78

a strategy whereby a learner attempts to organize unstructured material so as to enhance learning -> one way is building bigger and bigger chunks

Question 79

# Encoding What does research on organization indicates?

Answer 79

that these effects grow even larger the longer one waits to test memory

Question 80

# Encoding What does Organization enhance? | 2 things

Answer 80

short-term performance and long-term retention

Question 81

# Encoding operations What plays an important rule?

Answer 81

Instructions

Question 82

# Encoding operations What is typically beneficial regarding Instructions?

Answer 82

giving instructions to process items coherently and meaningfully -> transforming word lists into stories or interacting images

Question 83

# Encoding - Organization What is one of the techniques that might be more effective than others?

Answer 83

to try to link the various words into a coherent story -> creating chunks and linking them together