Unit 4 Flashcards
(108 cards)
1
Q
What is the literal meaning of ex post facto?
A
“after the fact”
-> translates to “from a thing done afterward”
2
Q
What is the purpose of ex post facto research design?
A
it attempts to determine a cause-and-effect relationship between an IV and a DV
3
Q
What is special about the IV in the Ex Post Facto Design?
A
it cannot be manipulated or altered
-> because we look at how a particular characteristic, trait or past occurrence affects the dependent variable
4
Q
What is the main character of the Ex Post Facto Design?
A
the groups of participants are determined by pre-existing conditions and events from the past
5
Q
What research design is used when we investigate how teenagers weight influences their self-confidence?
A
Ex Post Facto Design
-> because researcher chooses participants based on a pre-existing characteristic (weight)
6
Q
What is the IV if it is not manipulated?
A
it is observed as it naturally occurs
7
Q
What do some types of IV commonly found in ex post facto designs include?
A
- Pre-existing conditions or characteristics (variables that exist prior to study, not manipulated by the researcher)
- Historical events or circumstances (events or conditions that have already occured before the study begins and ar enot under control of researcher)
8
Q
What are 4 Characteristics of Ex Post Facto Design?
A
- No manipulation of IV
- Limited control over extraneous variables
- Exploratory and descriptive
- They cannot establish causal relationships due to the lack of experimental manipulation
9
Q
What does limited control over IV cause?
A
low internal validity
10
Q
What is internal validity?
A
the degree to which we can establish causal relationships, rejecting alternative explanations
11
Q
What Advantage is there in the Ex Post Facto Design?
A
it allows researchers to study phenomena or variables that cannot be manpulated intentionally due to ethical or practical limitations
12
Q
What are control techniques in Ex Post Facto Design?
A
- Matching
- ANCOVA
- Introduction of variables related to the DV
13
Q
What is the purpose of Matching in the Ex Post Facto Design?
A
to create comparable groups based on certain characteristics or variables
-> reseracher cannot manipulate IV: matching allows to identify individuals who are similar on key variables that might influence the outcome being studied
14
Q
What does Matching ensures in the Ex Post Facto Design?
A
that differences in the outcome variable are more likely to be due to the variable of interest rather than other extraneous factors
15
Q
What is the purpose of ANCOVA in the Ex Post Facto Design?
A
it incorporates covariates into the statistical analysis to remove their effect on the DV
-> helps to clarify the role of IV by controlling for the influence of extraneous variables
16
Q
Ex Post Facto Design
What does ANCOVA allows researchers to do with covariates?
A
to statistically adjust for the effects of covariates, like pre-existing group differences or other variables that may affect the outcome
17
Q
Ex Post Facto Design
What is the effect of ANCOVA on internal validity?
A
It increases internal validity by reducing the influence of extraneous variables and clarifying the causal relationship between IV and DV
18
Q
Ex Post Facto Design
What consists of using multiple dependent variables (DVs) instead of just one?
A
The introduction of variables related to the DV
e.g. studying relationship between depression and absenteeism at work, and another variable related to absenteeism is level of job satisfaction
-> we can include it in the design as another DV and therefore can study the relationship between depression and the level of job satisfaction as well as the relationship between depression and absenteeism at work
19
Q
What are the 2 types of design we can classify into?
A
- Single group design
- correlational - Group comparison design
- retrospective
- prospective
20
Q
What does the Single group design focus on?
A
studying the relationship between variables
-> extend to which variables are releated primarily through calculating correlations
21
Q
What do single group designs involve?
A
- a single sample of participants
- large samples
22
Q
What is each participant measured on in the Single group design?
A
each participant is measured on 2 or more variables
23
Q
What are single group designs often?
A
descriptive, aiming to describe the characteristics, behaviors, outcomes of the group following exposure to the independent variable
24
Q
Which purpose can a single group design have?
A
a relational or predictive purpose
25
What is the main goal of a Single Case with Relational Purpose study?
To examine how variables are related to each other within one group
—> no causality, just "who's vibing with whom."
26
How are variables handled in a relational single case design?
Multiple variables are measured within a single group to check their interrelationships.
-> like watching friendships unfold at a party — no interventions, just observation.
27
What kind of data analysis is typically used in relational designs?
Statistical techniques like correlation analysis — to see how strong and in which direction variables are linked
-> e.g. more beer, worse grades
28
Do researchers control variables in a relational single case study?
Nope! It's all post-facto. They just analyze how naturally occurring differences in variables relate to each other
—> kind of like scrolling through past texts and trying to figure out what went wrong.
29
Is a relational single case design causal or descriptive?
Descriptive and exploratory.
-> It's like a snapshot (cross-sectional style) aiming to spot patterns, not cause-effect drama.
30
What's an example of a Single Case with Relational Purpose?
A researcher studies how many beers students drank before an exam vs. their exam scores (correlation r = -0.825). Strong negative link, but no proof beer caused bad grades — maybe they just didn't study
31
Why can't we conclude causality in relational studies?
Because of directionality issues and third variables. Like: Did beer cause the bad grade, or did exam anxiety cause the beer? Or was it just… no study time?
32
When do researchers use a Single Case with Predictive Purpose?
When they already know variables are linked (thanks, relational studies!) and now want to predict outcomes using those links
33
What is the goal of a predictive single case study?
To identify which independent variable(s) (predictors) best forecast the value of a dependent variable (criterion). Like building a weather app, but for behavior
34
What kind of analysis is used in predictive designs?
Regression analysis! Either simple (1 predictor, 1 criterion) or multiple (many predictors).
-> Like trying to guess your exam score from sleep, stress, and snack intake
35
What’s an example of a Single Case with Predictive Purpose study?
A study on 300 teens in Colombia identifying personal and social predictors of marijuana use using surveys + structural equation modeling — predictors included low social skills, bad family vibes, and easy access to weed
36
What is the difference between retrospective and prospective designs in terms of group formation?
- Retrospective: Groups are formed based on the dependent variable (DV). The DV and IV have already occurred.
- Prospective: Groups are formed based on the independent variable (IV). The IV has already occurred, but its potential consequences (the DV) have not yet been evaluated
37
What are the two types of retrospective group comparison designs?
simple and/or case-control
38
What are the three types of prospective group comparison designs?
simple, complex or factorial and evolutive
39
What is the Retrospective Simple Design in group comparison?
A research design where one group is selected based on a specific value of the dependent variable (DV)
40
What is the main focus of the Retrospective Simple Design?
Researchers identify independent variables (IVs) that the group has in common, which may explain the DV
41
What must the independent variables (IVs) be in Retrospective Simple Design?
IVs should be theoretically relevant and precede the dependent variable (DV)
42
What is a limitation of Retrospective Simple Design?
Internal validity is compromised due to lack of control over extraneous variables, making it hard to confirm causality.
43
What is Retrospective Case-Control Design in group comparison?
A design that adds a control group to the previous retrospective design
-> involves comparing a group of individuals selected for having a particular characteristic (cases) with another group that does not have it (controls).
44
What is the main goal of Retrospective Case-Control Design?
To find any antecedent (IV) that covaries with the dependent variable (DV).
45
How do researchers ensure the groups are comparable in a Retrospective Case-Control Design?
They ensure groups are equivalent, often through matching (except for the DV).
46
What do researchers do after selecting the groups in a Retrospective Case-Control Design?
They study the IVs that might have influenced the DV
47
What analytical technique is used in Retrospective Case-Control Design?
Since the DV has two values (e.g., diagnosis vs. no diagnosis), correlational data analysis techniques are used.
48
What is an example of a Retrospective Case-Control Design with breast cancer?
Compare women with breast cancer (cases) to women without it (controls) and check if they had traumatic episodes in the past.
49
How are subjects selected in a prospective design?
Based on their independent variable (IV) values. The dependent variable (DV) hasn’t been measured yet.
50
What makes a design prospective?
The IV happens before the DV — but we can’t infer causality just from that!
-> ensures that IV precedes the DV (BUT: external variables still need to be controlled)
51
What is a Prospective Simple Design?
A design with one IV and at least two groups based on IV values. Then, DV is measured.
52
Can a Prospective Simple Design prove causality?
Nope. Because there’s no manipulation or control of extraneous variables.
53
How can researchers try to reduce the influence of external variables in a Prospective Simple Design?
By using techniques like matching, ANCOVA can be used
54
What makes a Prospective Complex/Factorial Design different from a simple one?
It includes several IVs and one or more DVs.
55
Is there any manipulation of variables in a Prospective Complex Design?
Nope – only selection of IV values, no manipulation (so it's non-experimental).
56
What type of data analysis is used in Prospective Complex/Factorial Designs?
Same as factorial experimental design: multifactorial analysis of variance (ANOVA).
57
# Group comparison design: Prospective
What is a Longitudinal Study?
Observational design that collects data from the same subjects repeatedly over time to observe trends or developmental changes.
58
# Group comparison design: Prospective
What can Longitudinal Studies show?
Changes over time, developmental processes, and possible cause-effect relationships.
59
# Group comparison design: Prospective
What is a Cross-Sectional Study?
Data is collected once, at a specific point in time or a very short period (single point in time), from a population or sample.
60
# Group comparison design: Prospective
What are Cross-Sectional Studies good for?
Assessing prevalence, identifying correlations, and generating hypotheses.
61
# Group comparison design: Prospective
What is a Sequential Study?
Combines longitudinal and cross-sectional designs: collects data from different age groups at multiple time points.
-> allows to examine age-related differences and changes over time within each age group
62
# Prospective Design
What is a prospective Longitudinal Design affected by?
may be affected by the history effect (since there is no control group) but not by cohort effect
63
# Prospective Design
What are Prospective Cross-sectional designs protected from?
from the history effect but confuse age with birth year (cohort effect)
-> e.g. not age is related to digital skills but belonging to a generation (cohort) with more technology
64
# Prospective Design
What is the Prospective Sequential Design protected from?
both effects (history and cohort)
-> both cross sectional and longitudinal comparisons can be made
65
# future scenarios
How are groups formed in the Retrospective study?
through the value of the DV
-> Ex-post facto
66
# future scenarios
How do we define our variables and groups in cross-sectional studies?
in the present
67
# future scenarios
What do we do in prospective or longitudinal studies?
we select our variables in the present and we gather data across time
68
# future scenarios
What do we do in evolutive studies?
We evaluate the changes related to development or age
69
What’s a retrospective comparison design?
You compare groups formed by DV, looking for causes that already happened (ex-post facto)
70
Can you select the IV to form groups in a retrospective cohort study?
Yes! If you’re interested in a shared characteristic in a cohort that may have caused X (e.g. exposure to something in the past).
71
Can you select the DV in a retrospective comparison design study?
Yep. If you start with a specific outcome and look for past causes = case-control retrospective design.
72
Example of a retrospective case-control question?
DV: Cancer. IV: Early exposure to tobacco.
Or: DV: Insomnia. IV: Bad sleep habits as a teen.
Or: DV: Long COVID. IV: Misinformation exposure during pandemic.
73
What is a cross-sectional cohort study?
You look at cohorts in the present (age groups, demographics) for prevalence/epidemiology.
74
What are natural groups in cross-sectional studies?
considering the specific answer of the population due to their individual differences (age, gender)
-> choosing different levels of stable IV
-> transcultural if you consider the effect of culture
75
What are predictive orientated cross-sectional designs?
They're cross-sectional studies that try to predict something rather than just describe it.
76
What is a Simultaneous Cross-Sectional Design?
Two groups measured at the same time, but they differ in age or maturity.
- Purpose: Compare groups to understand how age/maturity affects a DV.
- Only shows between-subject differences, not within.
77
What is a Repeated Cross-Sectional Design (aka Trend Study)?
You collect the same data from different people at different time points.
- Example: Asking each new class of psychology students in 2024, 2025, 2026 about their exam anxiety.
- Goal: See how trends change over time – not how individuals change, but how the group average shifts.
78
What’s the difference between Simultaneous and Repeated Cross-Sectional Designs?
- Simultaneous = Same time, different groups (e.g., ages)
- Repeated = Same survey, different years, different people
-> Simultaneous = age comparison; Repeated = time comparison
79
What is a Repeated Measures Prospective Design?
A design where we take repeated measurements from the same group over time to see how things change within that group.
-> Keyword: within-subject changes.
80
What kind of variable is usually used to group participants in a repeated measures prospective design?
An independent variable (IV) that defines the group (e.g., age group, job role, training type).
-> Everyone in the group shares this IV.
81
What’s the main goal of repeated measures in prospective designs?
To observe how time influences the DV within the same group.
-> We look at temporal patterns or effects.
82
Is the repeated measures prospective design a between-subject or within-subject design?
Within-subject.
-> We’re tracking the same people over time—not comparing them to others.
83
What is a Prospective Cohort Design?
A study design where a specific group (cohort) is followed over time to see how certain characteristics or exposures influence the development of a variable (DV)
84
What defines a “cohort” in this design?
A subpopulation with shared characteristics that are relevant to the study (e.g., smokers, nurses, kids born in 2010)
85
How is a Prospective Cohort Design different from a Repeated Measures Design?
Cohort Design = Focus on different outcomes between subgroups (some exposed, some not).
Repeated Measures = Focus on changes within the same people over time.
-> One’s about between-group evolution, the other about within-group change.
86
Can you have controls in a prospective cohort study?
Yes! Either:
- Within the same cohort (those who don’t develop the condition),
- Or by comparing with a second, non-exposed cohort.
87
What is the goal of using a cohort over time?
To assess the incidence and causal influence of exposure or characteristics on future outcomes.
88
What is a Nested Case-Control Study?
A type of prospective comparison design where cases and controls are drawn from a well-defined cohort that is already being followed.
89
How are participants selected in a Nested Case-Control Study?
- Cases = Individuals who develop a specific condition.
- Controls = Chosen from the same cohort but do not develop the condition.
90
Why is it called “nested”?
Because the case-control study is embedded within a cohort—like a mini-study living inside a bigger one
91
What are the benefits of a Nested Case-Control Study?
- Lower cost
- Less time-consuming
- Higher internal validity due to the controlled cohort setting
92
What makes the nested case control study “prospective”?
Because the cohort is followed forward in time, and cases/controls are identified as events occur—not after the fact.
93
What is an Evolutive Design?
A research design focused on age, development, or time, aiming to study how these factors influence or predict the presence of other variables over time.
94
Is an Evolutive Design short-term or long-term?
It's conducted over a relatively long period, often tracking developmental or age-related changes.
95
What is the purpose of Evolutive Designs?
To gather prospective information about how a factor may influence or predict another at a certain age, moment of development, or point in time.
96
What kinds of designs can Evolutive Studies use?
- Cross-sectional
- Longitudinal
- Sequential
All depending on how data is collected over time.
97
When would you use Evolutive Design?
When you're interested in developmental changes, e.g., how cognitive skills evolve in children, or how mental health varies with age.
98
What is a Cross-Sectional Evolutive Design?
It studies different age groups at a single point in time, focusing on age as a relevant variable.
99
What makes the cross-sectional evolutive design “evolutive”?
Unlike regular cross-sectional studies, this one explicitly treats age or development as a main focus.
100
When do you use a Cross-Sectional Evolutive Design?
When you want to compare developmental differences between age groups (e.g., memory in children vs. elderly) at one specific time.
101
How is the cross-sectional evolutive design different from a regular cross-sectional or comparative design?
It’s similar in method, but here, age is a key independent variable, not just one of many background factors.
102
What is a Longitudinal Evolutive Design?
It tracks one specific group over a long period to observe developmental or age-related changes.
103
What kind of sample does the Longitudinal Evolutive Design use?
Just one group, studied repeatedly across different time points.
104
What is the main goal of a longitudinal evolutive design?
To assess within-group changes over time that relate to age or development.
105
What’s the downside of the Longitudinal Evolutive Design design?
It’s expensive, time-consuming, and participants might drop out over time.
-> Alternatives like sequential or cross-sectional designs are more practical, but less valid.
106
What is a Sequential Evolutive Design?
A time-lagged design that studies different age groups over a long period to analyze how development and time affect variables
107
What are the benefits of a sequential evolutive design?
Best of both worlds:
– Like cross-sectional, it has low dropout
– Like longitudinal, it tracks real change over time
108
Why is the Sequential Evolutive Design sometimes called "Baby steps design"?
Because it follows small changes over time in multiple groups, giving insight into both age-related and time-related changes – without the drama of full longitudinal commitment
