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PHGY220 > Unit 4 - PHGY 220 > Flashcards

Unit 4 - PHGY 220 Flashcards

1
Q

What does the precentral gyrus in the frontal lobe control

A

voluntary movement

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2
Q

What does the primary motor cortex contain cell bodies for

A

upper motor neurons

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3
Q

What happens when you want to move a muscle

A

there is a cell body that comes and then the axon goes down and crosses over to the opposite side of the body and and then synapses with a neuron that goes out. the first neuron is the upper motor neuron and the cell body for this upper motor neuron. The upper motor neuron is in the pre central gyrus

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4
Q

Where is the upper motor neuron located in the

A

pre central gyrus

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5
Q

What happens if you damage the precentral gyrus

A

you will not be able to move that muscle

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6
Q

What part of the brain is damaged in a stroke and what happens

A

pre central gyrus

voluntary movement

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7
Q

You go from the left side of the body to the opposite side of the body? Where does the sigal go and where does it cross?

A

projects control laterally and crosses in the brain stem or spinal cord

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8
Q

Where are the upper motor cell bodies are

A

central gyrus

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9
Q

This is the controlled body regions map

A

motor homunculus

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10
Q

What is the homunculus

A

this is distorted proportions of the body the reflect the amount of cortex dedicated to each part

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11
Q

Why are certain parts of the homunculus larger than others

A

aka hands are large on the homunculus because of their large areas of brain that control their precise movements.

Small motor units

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12
Q

Where is the homunculus located?

A

postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe

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13
Q

What is the homunculus like

A

This is like a body that is laying over the precentral gyrus and it shows you where the cell bodies are located

the more fine motor control the more space dedicated to it

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14
Q

What types of muscle cells innervate

A

hip muscles; this is a large motor unit, you do not have a very good motor control vs for the tongue

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15
Q

this is also known as the somatic motor association area

A

premotor cortex

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16
Q

Where is the premotor cortex located

A

located anterior to the motor cortex

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17
Q

What does the premotor cortex do

A

this coordinates learned skilled activities

memory for movement

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18
Q

an association area is a type of

A

memory area

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19
Q

the area in front of the motor cortex is the

A

the association area of the memory of movement

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20
Q

If you damage the premotor cortex what happens

A

you cannot coordinate the movements, because you do not have the memory for the movement anymore

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21
Q

this is the motor movement area for speech

A

broca’s area

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22
Q

controls movements for speech

A

motor speech area (Broca’s)

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23
Q

this regulates eye movement

A

frontal eye field

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24
Q

regulates eye movement

A

frontal eye field

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25
Q

complex thought, judgement, personality, planning, deciding

A

prefrontal cortex

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26
Q

this part of the brain is still developing in adolescence

A

prefrontal cortex

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27
Q

What are the 3 parts of the premotor cortex

A

intellect

sensory

motor

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28
Q

intellect is in what part of the cortex

A

prefrontal cortex

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29
Q

The parietal lobe is from

A

the central sulcus posterior until you get ot the occipital lobe

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30
Q

The post central somatosensory cortex has what

A

this is where the general sensory information goes

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31
Q

What types of information does the postcentral gyrus receive sensory information from

A 
touch 
pressure
pain
temperature receptors 
proprioceptors
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32
Q

Where does the information for the primary somatosensory cortex come from

A

the opposite side of the body

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33
Q

information for the primary somatosensory cortex comes from

A

afferent neuron

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34
Q

If you damage the primary somatosensory cortex

A

you will not be able to have the signal cross onto the other side of the body

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35
Q

Areas of the body sending input can be mapped as a

A

sensory homunculus

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36
Q

How does the sensory homunculus work

A

distorted proportions reflect the amount of sensory receptors that are collecting information from that region

large regions for the lips, fingers, genital regions

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37
Q

What areas have large regions

A

lips, fingers, genital regions

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38
Q

Where are sensory receptors close together

A

not in places such as the shoulder as they are more spread out throughout the body

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39
Q

Where is the somatosensory association area

A

this area is immediately posterior to the postcentral gyrus (in the parietal lobe)

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40
Q

What does the somatosensory association area do

A

integrates touch information allowing us to recognize and identify objects by feel

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41
Q

What is the memory for feeling

A

somatosensory association area

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42
Q

recognize what you are feeling and integrate all the touch in your fingers

A

somatosensory association area

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43
Q

This is found in the temporal lobe and functions in hearing

A

primary auditory cortex

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44
Q

This is where you recognize what you hear

A

auditory association cortex

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45
Q

What is the memory for hearing

A

auditory association cortex

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46
Q

is that a dog barking or a cat meowing

A

auditory association area

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47
Q

This is found in the occipital lobe

this receives visual input from the retina

A

primary visual cortex

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48
Q

This integrates color, form, memory to allow us to recognize things that we see

A

visual association cortex

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49
Q

What is the memory for vision

A

visual association cortex

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50
Q

memory of what you have already seen

A

visual association cortex

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51
Q

where is the primary gustatory cortex found

A

insula

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52
Q

What does the primary gustatory cortex do

A

receives input from the tongue about taste

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53
Q

where is the primary olfactory cortex found

A

temporal lobe

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54
Q

what does the primary olfactory cortex do

A

recieves input from the nose about smell

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55
Q

Where is Wenicke’s area located

A

in the left hemisphere

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56
Q

What does Wernicke’s area do

A

involved in language comprehension

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57
Q

the temporal lobe has

A

taste

smell

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58
Q

When you hear something, you go where in the brain

A

go to the auditory cortex, then you go to the auditory association cortex, and then go to Wernicke’s to understand (language comprehension)

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59
Q

What is the hearing pathway?

A

temporal lobe, nerve track take it Wernikes, then to Broke’s to coordinate it

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60
Q

wernicke’s is the

A

complrephension of language

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61
Q

This is involved in higher intellectual functions (concentration, decision making, planning, personality)

A

prefrontal cortex

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62
Q

This multi-association area helps us understand spoken and written language

A

Wernicke’s area

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63
Q

Recieves and interprets somatic information from receptors for touch, proprioception, and pain

A

primary somatosensory cortex and somatosensory association area

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64
Q

processes, stores, and integrates visual information

A

primary visual cortex

visual association area

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65
Q

processes and interprets sounds, stores auditory memories

A

primary auditory cortex

auditory association area

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66
Q

provides conscious awareness of odors

A

primary olfactory cortex

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67
Q

Processes taste information and provides conscious awareness of taste

A

primary gustatory cortex

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68
Q

precentral gyrus is for

A

motor

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69
Q

post central gyrus is for

A

motor

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70
Q

What area has an assocation area for motor

A

frontal

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71
Q

what rea has an association area for sensory

A

parietal

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72
Q

occipital cortex has

A

an association area and visual cortex

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73
Q

temporal lobe has

A

auditory cortex with an association area

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74
Q

what does the temporal lobe have

A

auditory cortex with an association area

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75
Q

the insula is for the

A

taste

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76
Q

olfactory is for

A

smell

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77
Q

the prefrontal cortex is involved in

A

intellect and reasoning and understanding

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78
Q

How is the brain areas connected

A

through nerve tracts and these will connect areas in which some of them will connect the same hemisphere

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79
Q

What kind of tissue is the meniges

A

connective

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80
Q

What are the meninges made of

A

collagen

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81
Q

What is the jobs of the meniges

A

separate and support soft tissue of the brain

enclose and protect blood vessels supplying the brain

help contain and circulate cerebrospinal fluid

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82
Q

What are the parts of the cranial meninges

A

dura mater

arachnoid mater

pia mater

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83
Q

outer layer of the cranial meninges

A

dura mater

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84
Q

what is the middle layer of cranial meninges

A

arachnoid mater

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85
Q

what is the inner layer of the cranial meninges

A

pia mater

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86
Q

pia (cranial meninges) is what against the brain

A

tight

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87
Q

the dura mater in the cranial meninges is located

A

next to the bone

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88
Q

What are the layers of the dura mater

A

tough outer layer

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89
Q

What are the layers in the dura mater

A

meningeal layer (deeper layer of dura)

periosteal layer (more superficial layer of the dura)

aka all of these are the tough outer layers

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90
Q

how are the layers aligned in the dura mater

A

layers are usually fused but in some areas, they separate to form dural folds (septa) and with that dural venous sinuses that drain blood from the brain

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91
Q

this part of the dura mater is next to the bone

A

periosteal layer

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92
Q

Why is the periosteal layer hard to peel off of the bone

A

due to fibers

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93
Q

this is the lower layer of the dura, and goes down the fissures and separated them from the two layers

A

periosteal layer

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94
Q

What happens when the meningeal layer of the dura separated

A

creates a sinus; and this contains venus (waste), and drains it into the jugular vein. It will drain the waste into that space when you go into the meningeal layer that goes down in these fissues

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95
Q

when the meningeal layer creates and helps to eliminate venus from the sinus

A

double fold

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96
Q

This forms partitions between bein areas; provides support

A

cranial dural folds

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97
Q

This projects into longitudinal fissure between cerebral hemispheres

A

falx cerebri

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98
Q

What contains the superior sagittal sinus

A

contains the superior sagittal sinus

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99
Q

This projects into the transverse fissue between cerebrum and cerebellum

A

tentorium cerebelli

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100
Q

This projects between cerebellar hemispheres

A

falx cerebelli

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101
Q

where does the dural fold go

A

in the longitudinal fissures between the two hemipsheres. The fold then goes down and attaches to crista galli that sticks on the ethmoid bone (aka falx cerebri)

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102
Q

The falx cerebri does what

A

attaches to the crista galli to help anchor the brain, to keep it in place because of the way these two layers separate on the top here there is a superior sinus

the sagittal plane would separate right and left and call this the superior sagittal sinus

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103
Q

where waste is drained off

A

superior sagittal sinus

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104
Q

where is the falx cerebelli located

A

between the two layers of the cerebellum

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105
Q

indent in the brain skull

A

transverse fissue

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106
Q

The dural fold that goes into the transverse fissure is the

A

tentorium cerebelli

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107
Q

What are the types of cranial dural folds

A

falx cerebri

tentorium cerebelli

falx cerebelli

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108
Q

cranial dural folds do what

A

separate areas of the brain

anchor parts of the brain

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109
Q

What is the arachnoid mater

A

aka a middle layer

arachnoid trabeculae extend to pia mater through subsrachnoid space

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110
Q

this is the innermost layer of the arachnoid mater

A

pia mater

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111
Q

What is the role of pia mater

A

adheres to brain surface

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112
Q

is the pia mater vascular

A

yes

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113
Q

What is the role of the pia mater

A

its its own layer

innermost layer

adheres to the brain surface

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114
Q

Where is there no space in the cranial meninges

A

no space between the bone and the dura

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115
Q

What happens to the dura when you went through trauma

A

space between the brain and the bone (epidural space filled with blood)

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116
Q

Subarachnoid space contains

A

cerebrospinal fluid

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117
Q

What happens to the spaces in the brain when something is wrong

A

epidural space and subdural space

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118
Q

this is a skull fracture where bleeding occurs between the skull and the dura

A

epidural

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119
Q

This is a head injury where the vein bleed between the dura and arachnoid

A

subdural

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120
Q

below the dura

A

subdural

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121
Q

What types of spaces occur when something is wrong

A

epidural

subdural

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122
Q

the only space you should have in the brain is

A

subarachnoid space

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123
Q

where is subarachnoid space

A

between the arachnoid and the pia

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124
Q

This is acute brain damage occurring as a result of trauma

A

traumatic brain injury

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125
Q

this is the most common type of TBI

temporary loss of consciousness, headache, dowsiness, confusion, amnesia

may have cumulative effect on intellect, personality, mood

A

concussion

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126
Q

this is bruising of brain due to trauma

A

contusion

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127
Q

develop severe brain swelling

A

second impact syndrome (2nd injury before 1st resolves) esp in concussions

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128
Q

This is the inflammation of the meninges, typically caused by viral or bacterial (symptoms worse) infections

A

meningitis

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129
Q

what are the symptoms of the meningitis

A

fever

headache

vomiting

stiff neck

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130
Q

this is the inflammation of the brain, most often from viral infections

A

encephalitis

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131
Q

What are the symptoms of encephalitis

A

drowsiness, fever, headache, neck pain, and may result in death

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132
Q

these are cavities in the brain

A

ventricles

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133
Q

What are ventricles line with

A

ependymal cells

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134
Q

What do ventricles contain

A

cerebrospinal fluid

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135
Q

how do the brain ventricles connect with one another

A

with the spinal cord and central canal

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136
Q

hole between a lateral ventricle and a lateral ventricle and a third ventricle is a

A

ventricular foramen

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137
Q

each lateral ventricle makes

A

cerebrospinal fluid, but in the third you go down a long aqueduct (tube) (cerebral aqueduct) and go down to the fourth ventricle, for the fourth ventricle (this is the area between the arachnoid and their pier)

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138
Q

What is made in the third ventricularHow can fluid leave the brain

A

out the sides, back, or down the spinal cord

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139
Q

What are the ways to exit the brain

A

enter ventricular foramen.

thenn you go down to the third, and from the tird you go to the fourth via the cerebral aqueduct

then you get to the fourth, and when in the fourth you can go out

or you can go down the middle of the spinal cord in the central canal

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140
Q

this surrounds the brain and spinal cord and goes down the middle of the spinal cord in the central canal

A

subaraachnoid space

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141
Q

the two lateral ventricles are in the

A

cerebral hemispheres

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142
Q

this is also known as the interventricular foramen

A

two lateral ventricles (cerebral hemipsheres)

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143
Q

third ventricle has the

A

cerebral aqueduct and is connected by the thalamus

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144
Q

when you get ot the fourth ventricle how can you go out

A

down the cerebral aqueduct to the fourth and you can either go out the sides through the lateral apertures, go out the back through the median aperture, and those would take you into the subarachnoid space or you can go down through the central canal

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145
Q

This is a clear colorless liquid surrounding CNS

A

CSF

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146
Q

Where is the CSF made

A

ventricles and circulates in the subsarachnoid space

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147
Q

what are the functions in the CSF

A

buoyancy - reduces brain’s weight by 95%

protection - provides a liquid cushion

environmental stability - transport of nutrients/wastes and protects against fluctuations

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148
Q

How is CSF made

A

chorioid plexus

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149
Q

his is a layer of ependymal cells and blood capillaries (within pia)

A

choroid plexus

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150
Q

how does the choroid plexus work

A

blood plasma

compared to plasma, CSF has more NA, CL, and less K, Ca, and glucose

this is filtered through capillary and modified by ependymal cells

CSF is continually formed and reabsorbed

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151
Q

in each ventricle you ave a

A

choroid plexus

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152
Q

What is the choroid plexus made of

A

pia matter

and blood capillaries and are in pia matter and append themselves

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153
Q

the pia is surrounded by

A

ependymal cells covering that whole capillary

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154
Q

How does the choroid plexus work

A

pull fluid out of the capillary and put it out of the capillary and into that space and the fluid becomes cerebrospinal fluid

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155
Q

What is in the choid plexus

A

you have glucose in it, you nourish the brain yet picking up waste

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156
Q

Where is CSF produced

A

all ventricles

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157
Q

How does CSF leave the brain

A

goes to and then leaves subarachnoid space via arachnoid granulations that drain into the dural venous sinuses

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158
Q

Where is the CSF made

A

the two lateral ventricles, the third ventricle, and the fourth ventricle

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159
Q

What does the CSF do when in the subarachnoid space

A

nourishing and picking up waste

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160
Q

This is a pathologic condition of excessive CSF

in a young child, head enlarged with a possible neurological damage that may be treated surgically (implant shunts that drain CSf to other body regions)

block off the subarachnoid (cerebral aqueduct) and filling the ventricles with CSF and cannot be drained

A

hydrocephalus

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161
Q

took its foot and wrapped around the capillary in the brain and formed a barrier so things cannot get out

A

astrocyte

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162
Q

This regulates which substances enter the brain’s interstitial fluid

this helps prevent the neuron exposure to harmful substances (drugs wastes and abnormal solute concentrations)

toxic things cannot get out

A

blood brain barrier

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163
Q

What helps keep the blood brain barrier in tact

A

astrocytes and specialized capillaries

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164
Q

what is the one thing that could escape the blood brain barrier

A

alcohol

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165
Q

the motor cortex is in the

A

precentral gyrus in the frontal lobe

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166
Q

behind the central sulcus is the

A

sensory area, general sensory which is in the post central gyrus, which causes you to feel things such as pain, pressure, and temp

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167
Q

infromation for the visual cortex originates in the

A

retina

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168
Q

this is for taste inside the insula

A

gustatory

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169
Q

this is on the inside of the temporal lobe

A

olfactory

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170
Q

helps you do the movements so that you can speak

A

broca’s area

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171
Q

broca’s and wernicke’s area is in what part of the brain

A

left hemisphere

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172
Q

bundles of axons

A

nerve tracts

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173
Q

these are composed of bundles of myelinated axons grouped into tracts

A

cerebral white matter tracts

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174
Q

this connects areas within the same hemisphere

A

association tracts

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175
Q

this connects the cortex with other areas of brain or spinal cord

A

projection tracts

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176
Q

this connects the right and left hemispheres

via the corpus callosum

A

commissural tracts

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177
Q

what are the types of tracts

A

association

projection

commissural

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178
Q

this is the stalk of the pituitary that extends from the hypothalamus

A

infundibulum

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179
Q

What is the role of the diencephalon/hypothalamus

A

infundibulum

this controls of the autonomic nervous system (influences heart rate, blood pressure, digestive activities, respiration)

control of the endocrine system (secretes hormones that control activities in the pituitary gland)

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180
Q

This says that each hemispheres may have a different function

A

cerebral hemisphere lateralization

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181
Q

What does the left hemisphere mean

A

reading/writing

math

typically right handed

broca/wernicke

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182
Q

this is specialized for visuospatial relationships and imagination

representational

A

right hemisphere

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183
Q

What are the categories that hemipsheres go into

A

categorical

representation

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184
Q

What is the categorical hemipshere

A

left

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185
Q

what is the representational hemisphere

A

right hemi

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186
Q

How do the two hemispheres communicate

A

through the corpus callosum and other commissures

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187
Q

when does lateralization occur

A

early childhood (5-6 years)

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188
Q

what is lateralization correlated to

A

handedness

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189
Q

What is the handedness argument in lateralization

A

in right handers, the left hemisphere is almost always categorical, speech dominant

left handed individuals may have either hemisphere be categorical

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190
Q

This is when neurons transmit action potentials too frequently and rapidly

A

epilepsy

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191
Q

what causes a cerebrovacular accident

A

reduced blood supply to part of the brain

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192
Q

what are stokes due to

A

blocked arterial blood vessel or hemorrage

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193
Q

what is a brief episode of a stroke

A

transient ischemic attack

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194
Q

clusters of cell bodies

A

nuclei

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195
Q

This is gray matter deep in the cerebrum

this helps regulate motor output and inhibits unwanted movements (diseases of these nuclei associated with involuntary movements)

A

cerebral nuclei

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196
Q

this functions in the mood, emotions

A

amygdala

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197
Q

nuclei are are all

A

clusters of cell bodies

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198
Q

What does the cerebral nulci do

A

helps regulate motor output and inhibits unwanted movements (diseases of these nuclei are associated with involuntary movements such as Parkinson’s

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199
Q

damage to the cerebral nuclei could cause a

A

resting tremor: cannot inhibit unwanted movements

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200
Q

This is an enlarged head and slender tail paralleling lateral ventricle

this helps produce pattern and rhythm of walking movements

A

caudate nucleus

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201
Q

this is a rounded mass between the insula and diencephalon

A

lentiform nucleus

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202
Q

What is the lentiform nucleus composed of

A

putamen

diencephalon

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203
Q

what is the lentiform nucleus composed of

A

putamen

globus pallidus

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204
Q

this helps control movements at the subconscious level

A

putamen

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205
Q

What does the diencephalon include

A

epithalamus

thalamus

hypothalamus

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206
Q

this forms the posterior part of the rood of the diencephalon, covers their third ventricle

A

epithalamus

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207
Q

What are the things going on in the epithalamus

A

pineal gland (endocrine gland secreting)

helps regulate day-night cycles, circadian rhythm

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208
Q

what does the pineal gland secrete

A

melatonin

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209
Q

these are oval masses of gray matter on lateral sides of the third ventricle

A

thalamus

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210
Q

Where are the right and left masses connected in the thalamus

A

midline

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211
Q

What does the thalamus do/recieve

A

receives signals from all conscious senses except olfaction

this relays some signals to appropriate parts of cortex and filters out other signals distracting from the subject of attention (background noise in crowded areas)

***sorts and edits sensory information before relaying to the cortex

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212
Q

all the sensory information from skin/eyes/ears/etc goes here (sensory information)

A

thalamus

213
Q

Where does sensory information go in the brain

A

thalamus before cortex

214
Q

type of matter in thalamus

A

gray

215
Q

what controls the autonomic nervous system

A

diencephalon

216
Q

this is the stalk of the pituitary that extends from the hypothalamus

A

infundibulum

217
Q

What are the roles of the hypothalamus

A

control of autonomic nervous system (influences heart rate, blood pressure, digestive activities, respiration) (cardiac/smooth/gland control)

control of endocrine system (secretes hormones that control activities in the pituitary gland) (does this via the pituitary gland because its controlling the pituitary gland to the brain stem)

218
Q

What does the brainstem connect

A

cerebrum

diencephalon

cerebellum to the spinal cord

219
Q

What does the brainstem have

A

ascending

descending nerve tracts

220
Q

Nuclei and reflex centers in the brain stem for

A

10 of the 12 cranial nerves

221
Q

What does the brain stem consist of

A

midbrain

pons

meduall

222
Q

What do all three regions of the brain stem include

A

sensory and motor tracts controlling brain to spinal cord

223
Q

This connects the cortex and the spinal cord, it has

A

brain stem

motor tracks

224
Q

of the 12 pair of cranial nerves, how many are attached to the brain stem

A

10

225
Q

how many cranial nerves are there

A

12

226
Q

What are the parts of the midbrain

A

cerebral peduncles

substantia nigra

colliculi

227
Q

this is the major motor pathway

axons for the upper motor neurons

A

cerebral peduncles

228
Q

this releases dopamine

parkinson’s disease

A

substantia nigra

229
Q

What are the types of colliculi

A

superior

inferior

230
Q

visual reflexes are a part of this

A

superior colliculi

231
Q

auditory reflexes are a part of the

A

inferior colliculi

232
Q

mounds of tissue

A

colliculi

233
Q

how many colliculi are therel how many inferior vs superior

A

4

2 superior

2 inferior

234
Q

colliculi are involved with

A

reflexes

235
Q

deals with visual reflexes and looking at things

A

superior colliculi

236
Q

the way you react to auditory input

A

inferior colliculi

237
Q

this helps regulate the skeletal muscles of breathing

A

pons

238
Q

What are the roles of the medulla

A

reflex centers

cardiac center (regulates heart output)

vasomotor center (regulates blood vessel diameter)

respiratory center(regulates breathing rate)

pyramids

olives

239
Q

reflexively, this is what keeps the heart going

A

medulla

240
Q

damage to the medulla can be

A

fatal

241
Q

the axons of the upper motor neurons decussate (cross) so that each side of the cortex controls the movement on the opposite body side

A

pyramids

242
Q

cross to the other side

A

decussation - upper motor neurons cross in the pyramids of the medulla

243
Q

This is a hereditary diseases that affects cerebral nuclei

rapid jerky involuntary movements

intellectual deterioration

fatal within 10 to 20 years after onset

A

huntington’s disease

244
Q

this affects muscle movement and balance

stiff posture, slow voluntary movements, resting tremor

A

parkinson’s disease

245
Q

this is caused by the decreased dopamine production in the substantia nigra

A

parkinson’s disease

246
Q

2nd largest brain area

A

cerebellum

247
Q

What are that parts of the cerebellum

A

outer cortex is of gray matter, inner area of white matter

not as pronounced

each hemispheres has an anterior and posterior lobe separated by primary fissure vermis

middle cerebellar peduncles

superior cerebellar penduncles

inferior cerebellar peduncles

248
Q

What are the types of cerebellar peduncles

A

inferior

middle
superior

249
Q

this is the “comparator” which compares intended movements with actual and tells the cerebral cortex to make adjustments

A

cerebellum

250
Q

information about actual movements comes from the muscles/joints to cerebellum via the medulla

I intend to put my finger towards my nose, but it is going towards my ear

information comes back to the brain via medulla

cerebellum compares the intended movement with the actual movement

A

inferior cerebellar peduncles

251
Q

information about intended movements comes from the cerebrum to cerebellum via the pons

info from cortex

A

middle cerebellar peduncles

252
Q

cerebellum sends message to cerebral cortex via the midbrain to make adjustment pons

cerebellum to cortex saying that your hand is moving the wrong way

cortex makes the adjustments

A

superior cerebellar peduncles

253
Q

types of peduncles

A

inferior

superior

middle

254
Q

parts of the limbic system

A

amygdaloid body (basal ganglia)

hippocampus

255
Q

this is involved in many aspects of emotion and emotional memory, especially fear

A

amygdaloid body

256
Q

this is involved in storing memories and forming long term memory

A

hippocampus

257
Q

emotional brain

A

amygdaloid

258
Q

gray matter around brain stem

A

reticular formation

259
Q

you send all sorts of information from foot, smells in the room, info to brain

this allows you to stay alert

A

reticular formation

260
Q

This processes sensory information, sends signals to cortex to bring about alertness (aka response to sound of an alarm clock)

Alertness brings about awareness (of sensations, movements, thoughts) which is necessary for highest states of consciousness

A

reticular activating system

261
Q

what happens when the cerebellum is not functioning correctly

A

intention tremor is developed (as you bring finger to nose, you start to shake)

resting tremor (basal nuclei)

262
Q

what happens when the cerebellum is not functioning correctly

A

intention tremor is developed (as you bring finger to nose, you start to shake)

resting tremor (basal nuclei)

263
Q

What are the major functions of the spinal cord and the spinal nerves

A

link between brain and rest of body (sensory input from body, motor commands from brain)

spinal reflexes (responses that do not involve the brain and are fast reactions to a stimulus)

264
Q

what does the spinal cord do

A

it is the place where you will be linking the brain with the rest of the body

265
Q

This is when a message goes to the spinal cord and then a message goes out to the muscles (this does not involve the brain)

A

spinal reflex

266
Q

this is just a direct connection between afferent and efferent neurons

A

reflex

267
Q

what goes out of the spinal cord segments

A

spinal nerves

268
Q

What are the spinal segments

A

cervical

thoracic

lumbar

sacral

coccygeal

269
Q

How many pairs of spinal nerves are there

A

31

270
Q

what are the types of spinal enlargements

A

cervical

lumbar

271
Q

innervation for the upper limbs

A

cervical enlargement

272
Q

innervation for the lower limbs

A

lumbar enlargement

273
Q

how many cervical segments are there

A

8

274
Q

How many spinal bones are there for each category

A

7 cervical

12 thoracic

5 lumbar

1 sacral

1 coccygeal

275
Q

How many nerves come out of each spinal segment

A

8 cervical

12 thoracic

5 lumbar

5 saccral

1 coccygeal

276
Q

how many spinal nerves are there in the spine

A

31

277
Q

Why do you have a cervical enlargemtn

A

because you have so much sensory input coming from your fingers/hands, so you have a large area of the spinal cord devoted to it and many muscles innovated by spinal nerves

278
Q

how long is the spinal cord

A

17-18 inches

279
Q

this is the end of the spinal cord between L1-L2 vertebra

A

conus medullaris

280
Q

this is the area of the spinal nerve roots below the conus

A

cauda equina

281
Q

pia mater that anchors to the coccyx

A

filum terminale

282
Q

what part of the spinal cord grows the fastest

A

bones

283
Q

As you grow, what happens to the spinal nerves

A

they are pulled on and they end up going out down below; so we see that the spinal cord does not go all the way down to the end of that spinal foramen, rather it stops between L1 and L2

284
Q

what does the spinal cord end at

A

a cone shaped end (conus medullaries) which is the part of the spinal cord that ends between L1 and L2

285
Q

As the spinal nerves are dragged down, where do they go

A

where the spinal nerve roots get dragged down inside the foramen below the conus (like spaghetti)

286
Q

What are the outer layers of the spinal cord

A

PIA which is dragging down and covering the spinal cord (but there is a piece of it that continues on down along with all those spinal nerves) and gets attached to the coccyx and it goes down to the end (filum terminale) and this is PIA matter that is below the conus

287
Q

These are a cable-like bundle of axons in the PNS

A

nere

288
Q

what kind of wrappings do nerves have

A

connective tissue

289
Q

What are the wrappings in nerves

A

epineurium

perineurium - fascicle

endoneurium

290
Q

this is a bundle of axons either in the spinal cord or in the brain

A

nerve tract

291
Q

when you are in the brain/spinal cord what do you call the bundle of axons

A

nerve tract

292
Q

when out in the legs/arms what do you call a bundle of axons

A

a nerve

293
Q

What is surrounding the axons in the end zone area

A

endoneurium

294
Q

bundle of axons

A

fascicle

295
Q

what covers the endoneurium of the axons

A

perineurium

296
Q

This is around the outside of the axon

A

epineurium

297
Q

If you were to cut the dorsal root, what would you lose

A

feelings

298
Q

What is in the dorsal root ganglion

A

the cell bodies for the sensory neurons

299
Q

when the dorsal and ventral roots combine, it is now a

A

spinal nerve

300
Q

This is where the roots would join

A

spinal nerve

301
Q

all of our spinal nerves are

A

mixed

302
Q

What are the types of spinal roots

A

ventral root

dorsal root

dorsal root ganglion

303
Q

this contains motor neurons in the spinal cord

A

ventral root

304
Q

This contains sensory neurons in the spinal cord

A

dorsal root

305
Q

this contains the sensory cell bodies in the spinal cord

A

dorsal root gangion

306
Q

All 31 pairs of spinal nerves contain both what kinds of neurons and what is this then classified as

A

sensory and motor

mixed nerves

307
Q

What is the spinal cord protexted by

A

bone

meninges

cerebrospinal fluid

308
Q

this houses the spinal cord

A

vertebral column

309
Q

Where does the spinal cord pass through

A

vertebral canal

310
Q

Where does each spinal nerve exit through

A

intervertebral foramen

311
Q

where do the spinal nerves exit

A

intervertebral foramen

312
Q

This surrounds and protects the spinal cord

A

spinal cord meninges

313
Q

What are the spinal cord meninges

A

dura (outermost layer)

arachnoid (middle)

pia (tight against the spinal cord)

314
Q

This is the delicate inner layer which adheres to the spinal cord

A

pia mater

315
Q

What are the parts of the pia mater in the spinal cord

A

denticulate ligaments

filum terminale

316
Q

this is the lateral extensions of pia; help suspend spinal cord

A

denticulate ligaments

317
Q

pia anchoring to the inferior end of the spinal cord to the coccyx

A

filum terminale

318
Q

This is the web-like middle layer of the spinal cord

A

arachnoid mater

319
Q

What are the parts inside of the arachnoid mater

A

arachnoid trabeculae

320
Q

This is the fibrous extensions of the membrane

A

arachnoid trabeculae

321
Q

This is the tough, protective outer layer of the spinal cord

A

dura mater

322
Q

this helps anchor the spinal cord

A

denticulate ligaments

323
Q

the pia forms the

A

filum terminale which attaches the conus to the coccyx

324
Q

What are the spaces in the spinal cord

A

subarachnoid space

epidural space

325
Q

this is between the arachnoid and the pia, and contains cerebrospinal fluid, CSF

A

subarachnoid space

326
Q

this is the area between the dura and vertebrae. this is filled with fat and vessels

A

epidural space

327
Q

this pushes the arachnoid against the dura so you do not have a space between the arachnoid and dura

A

subarachnoid space

328
Q

between the dura and the bone, there is a

A

epidural space

329
Q

what is the importance fo the epidursal space

A

potential for cancer to travel and lymphatic so that it can travel to the brain

inject things to anesthetize nerve roots

330
Q

This is between the arachnoid and the PIA

A

cerebrospinal fluid

331
Q

Why do you do a lumbar puncture

A

because you want the fluid to go out of the spine and you want to get CSF because if you find extra white blood cells or a certain ion concentration, then there might be something going on

332
Q

What is the procedure for getting CSF

A

needle passes through skin, back muscles, dura mater, arachnoid mater into subarachnoid space

adult spinal cord ends at L1

lumbar puncture below this, just above or below L4

you go on the inside of the arachnoid and that would be the subarachnoiod space

333
Q

What type of matter do you have on the outside of the spinal cord

A

white

334
Q

what type of matter do you have on the outside of the spinal cord

A

gray

335
Q

what is the gray matter in the spinal cord called

A

gray horns

336
Q

the opening in the middle of the spinal cord

A

gray honrs

central canal

337
Q

the outer matter of the spinal cord is

A

axons/ white matter tracks

338
Q

another word for nerve tracks

A

funiculi

339
Q

bundles of myelinated axons are also known as

A

funiculi

340
Q

What are some of the major parts of the corss section of the spinal cord

A

gray horns
funiculi or nerve tracks

central canal - CSF

posterior median sulcus

anterior median fissure

341
Q

What connects the right and left sides of the spinal cord

A

commissures

342
Q

for the dorsal root ganglion, where is the bulge

A

in the back

343
Q

this is made of a neurons cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons

A

gray horns

344
Q

what are gray horns made of

A

neurons cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons

345
Q

What are the types of gray horns

A

posterior horns

anterior horns

lateral horns

346
Q

this house axons of sensory neurons and cell bodies of interneurons

A

posterior horns

347
Q

this house cell bodies of somatic motor neurons

A

anterior horns

348
Q

house cell bodies of autonomic motor neurons

A

lateral horns

349
Q

What is the pathway of a sensory input coming in the spinal cord

A

sensory input come in, there is the cell body and dorsal root ganglion, and then it comes in and we will synapse with interneurons that go up

350
Q

if you damage the posterior horn, you lose

A

sensory input

351
Q

if you damage the anterior horn, you loe

A

motor

352
Q

if you damage the interior gray horn, you would lose

A

motor

353
Q

if you lose the posterior horn, you

A

lose the connection between the motor and sensory input

354
Q

this is a group of cell bodies

A

nuclei

355
Q

bundles of myelinated axons tha are going to and from the brain

A

nerve tracts

356
Q

nerve tracks are in the

A

white matter

357
Q

What are the types of funiculuses

A

posterior

lateral

anterior

358
Q

this contains sensory tracts

A

posterior funiculus

359
Q

if you damage the posterior funiculus, what happens

A

lose sensation

360
Q

if you damage the lateral side of funiculus, what happens

A

you might not be able to move something (motor)

361
Q

pathways are made of

A

two or more neurons

362
Q

what happens to most nerve pathways

A

decussate: axons cross midline so brain processes information for opposite or contralateral side (uncrossed pathways work on the same or ipsilateral side of the body)

363
Q

axons cross midline so brain processes information for opposite or contralateral side axons cross midline so brain processes information for opposite or contralateral side

A

decussate

364
Q

uncrossed pathways work on the

A

same or ipsilateral side of the body

365
Q

What are the types of pathways

A

sensory

motor

366
Q

ascend towards the brain

A

sensory pathways

367
Q

descend from the brain

A

motor pathways

368
Q

what happens on the sensory pathway

A

hit dorsal root ganglion, then crossover, and synapse, and go up to thalamus and then go up to the post central gyrus

369
Q

Example of a motor pathway

A

the upper motor neuron that is up in the precentral gyrus that is coming down and get to the brainstem to the medulla and then you will crossover and go down the spinal cord, and go down the spinal cord and then you will synapse with the upper motor neuron whose cell body is in the precentral gyrus

you are synapsing with the lower motor neuron that is actually going out to the muscle

its on the opposite of the body again

370
Q

sensory input transmitted through the spinal cord originated from the general sense receptors

A

general sense receptors

371
Q

What are the types of receptors

A

somatic

visceral

372
Q

what are the types of somatic sensory recpetors

A

tactile

proprioceptors

373
Q

pain
pressure

temp of skin

muscles

A

somatic sensory

374
Q

detect stretch in joints, muscles, tendons

A

proprioceptors

375
Q

detect changes in an organ

A

visceral sensory receptors

376
Q

this includes control effectors such as skeletal muscles

A

motor pathways

377
Q

How many neurons are in the motor pathways

A

upper motor neuron

lower motor neuron

at least 2

378
Q

this is when the cell body is located in the brain

A

upper motor neuron

379
Q

this is the cell body either in the brainstem or the spinal cord

axon extends to the muscle

A

lower motor neuron

380
Q

what is the pathway of the upper motor neuron

A

started in the precentral gyrus, go down till in the medulla then to brain stem and crossing over (decussation in medulla) and then synapse with the lower motor neuron that goes to the muscle

381
Q

pathway of the upper motor neuron decussates at thee

A

medulla

382
Q

go from the spinal cord to the cerebellum

A

spinocerebellar

383
Q

spinocerebellar is an example of

A

ascending sensory ; pain or pressure

384
Q

brain to the spinal cord

A

corticospinal tract

descending motor track

385
Q

you have sensory that is coming and you synapse with another neuron and then go up to the thalamus and then up to the post central gyrus

this is an example of

A

ascending sensory pathways, motor pathways

386
Q

example of a motor pathway

A

you have a motor neuron that is in the precentral, go down and cross over, and then synapse with the lower motor neuron that is going to the muscle

387
Q

What are the impacts of spinal cord injuries

A

this may leave individuals paralyzed and unable to perceive sensations

prompt use of steroids after injury (may preserve muscle function; reduce inflammation)

neural stem cells (may be used in the future to regenerate CNS axons)

388
Q

After the intervertebral foramen, what happens with the spinal cord

A

it splits

389
Q

How does the spinal cord split

A

dorsal/posterior ramus and ventral/anterior ramus

390
Q

this is a small branch that innervates muscles and skin of back

A

dorsal/posterior ramus

this is a small branch that innervates muscles and skin of back

sensory

391
Q

this is a large branch and at different levels, this innervates anterior and lateral trunk, upper limb, and lower limb

A

ventral/anterior ramus

this is a large branch and at different levels, this innervates anterior and lateral trunk, upper limb, and lower limb

motor

392
Q

If you cut the dorsal root, what do you lose

A

sensory

393
Q

if you cut the ventral route, what do you lose

A

lose motor

394
Q

if you cut a spinal nerve, you lose

A

sensory and motor

395
Q

what if you cut a ramus, what do you lose

A

if you cut the dorsal ramus (you lose both sensory and motor)

if you cut the ventral ramus you lose sensory and motor

396
Q

ramuses have both

A

sensory and motor neurons

397
Q

roots have

A

either sensory or motor (not both)

398
Q

This is a segment of skin that is supplied by a single spinal cord segment and nerve

This helps physicians do what

A

dermatomes

determine where nerve damage is as the patient will not feel pain in the area where they prick if it is the correct area

399
Q

this is a braid or interweaving of anterior rami of spinal nerves

A

nerve plexus (sensory and motor

become a nerve from two different nerve s

400
Q

What are the four main plexuses

A

cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral

401
Q

Where do the plexuses occur

A

bilaterally

402
Q

What parts of the spinal cord do not form plexuses

A

S5-Co1

403
Q

What are the nerve plexuses of the cervical area of the spinal cord

A

phrenic

1

C3,C4,c5

goes to the diaphragm and keeps it alive

404
Q

What are the nerve plexuses of the cervical area of the spinal cord

A

phrenic

1

C3,C4,c5

goes to the diaphragm and keeps it alive

405
Q

this goes to the upper limb type of plexus

A

brachial

406
Q

the lumbar plexus goes to the

A

thigh

407
Q

if you get chicken pox, it is a virus that can just hang out in the

A

dorsal root ganglion

408
Q

what happens if chicken pox is reactivated

A

it can travel through the sensory axons to the dermatome; this can cause rash and blisters along the dermatome

burning and tingling pain, antiviral medication to reduce severity, vaccine to prevent or reduce disease severity

409
Q

shingles is an

A

reactivation of the chickenpox

410
Q

picking up the information about what is going on outside of your body and inside of your body

A

sensory receptors

411
Q

sensory receptors respond to a

A

stimulus; especially to a type of stimulus

412
Q

How do receptors convery signals to the CNS

A

via sensory neurons

413
Q

this is the distribution area of the endings of a sensory neuron (smaller allows more precise stimulus localization)

A

receptive field

414
Q

this is a stimulus that we are consciously aware of

A

sensation

415
Q

What are the types of receptors

A

general

special

416
Q

what are the types of general sense receptors

A

somatic

visceral

417
Q

this is pain, pressure, temp, proprioception

this is the receptors in the skin, membranes, joints, muscles, and tendons

A

somatic sensory receptors

418
Q

this is pain stretch, temperature, chemicals

A

visceral sensory receptors

419
Q

these are receptors in the walls of internal organs

A

visceral sensory receptors

420
Q

these are receptors in the skin, membranes, joints, muscles, and tendons

A

somatic sensory receptors

421
Q

this type of receptor responds to

A

vision, sound, equilibrium, smell and taste

422
Q

receptors in the sense organs of the head

A

special sense receptors

423
Q

what are the types of sensory receptor classification

A

extreoceptors

interoceptors

proprioceptors

424
Q

this detects stimuli from the external environment

skin and mucus membranes; special sense receptors

A

exteroceptors

425
Q

this detects stimuli from the internal organs

A

interoceptors

426
Q

this includes the visceral sensory receptors monitoring the internal environment

A

interoceptors

427
Q

this detects body and limb movements

A

proprioceptors

428
Q

this is the somatosensory receptors of the muscle, tendons, and the joints

A

proprioceptors

429
Q

what are the types of sensory receptor classification

A

chemoreceptor

themotorreport

photoreceptor

mechanoreceptor

nocireceptor

430
Q

this detects chemicals dissolved in teh fluid (tongue, nose)

A

chemoreceptors

431
Q

this detects changes in the temperature

A

thermoreceptors

432
Q

detects change in the light intensity, color, movement (eye)

A

photoreceptors

433
Q

this detects the distortion of the cell membrane

includes touch, pressure vibration, and stretch receptors

A

mechanoreceptors

434
Q

this detects painful stimuli; too much of a sensory receptor

A

nocireceptors

435
Q

this is the inaccurate localization of sensory signals

A

referred pain

436
Q

what is referred pain from

A

the idea that signals travel in the same ascending tracts within the spinal cord so that the cortex is unable to determine the true source

organs detect pain from the wrong area

437
Q

if you have a upper limb and you lose it, you still have nerve pathways

still fells like you have your hand or foot

A

phantom pain

438
Q

this is detection of dissolved odorants

A

olfaction

439
Q

this is a bundle of olfactory cell axons that project through ethmoid cribriform plate and enter olfactory bulbs

have to dissolve chemicals through the nose/liquid

A

olfactory nerves

440
Q

this is the sense of taste; detection of tastants

A

gustation

441
Q

this does not help taste but helps manipulate food

A

filiform papillae

442
Q

in order to taste or smell, you have to take

A

chemoreceptors and dissolve them in fluid in order to taste or smell

443
Q

palpebrae is the

A

eyelids

444
Q

What are the types of palpebrae

A

lower or inferior

445
Q

the slit that if between the palpebrae is the

A

fissure

446
Q

this is the transparent lining of the eye and lid surfaces

A

conjunctiva q

447
Q

How does the eye stay in the way that it does

A

goblet cells (membrane) moisten the eye does not nourish the colored portion of the eye; white of the eye is avascular ; does not , many blood vessels nourish sclera, abundant nerve endings

does not over cornea so as to not interfere with the light passage

448
Q

pink eye is also known as

A

conjunctivitis

449
Q

the weight of the eye is the

A

sclera

450
Q

this is in the superior lateral orbit of the eye / produces fluid and secretes it through ducts

A

lacrimal gland

451
Q

what is in tears

A

water

Na

antibodies

lysozyme (antibacterial enzyme)

452
Q

what is the function of the lacrimal fluid

A

lubricates, cleanses and moistens the eye, oxygenates and nourished the cornea

453
Q

the tears in the eye exit through the

A

ducts and then the test go through the lacrimal sac

454
Q

the fluid from the lacrimal gland drains where

A

into the lacrimal puncta to the lacrimal canaliculus into the lacrimal sac

the sac then drains to the nasolacrimal duct to the nasal cavity in the inferior meatus under the inferior conchae

455
Q

if you lose weight really fast what happens to your eyes and why

A

get sunken in

because you lose the fat pad, this is due to the idea that the eye almost spherical and is located in the skull’s orbit, padded by orbital fat

456
Q

What are the cavities in the eye

A

posterior

anterior

457
Q

this (behind the lens) contains permanent vitreous humor

A

posterior cavity

458
Q

(in front of the lens) this contains circulating aqueous humor

A

anterior cavity

459
Q

What is the wall of the eye formed with

A

three tunics;
fibrous

vascular

retina

460
Q

What are the parts of the fibrous tunic

A

sclera

cornea

461
Q

what are the parts of the vascular tunic

A

iris

ciliary body

choroid

462
Q

what are the parts of the retina

A

pigmented layer

neural layer

463
Q

what separates the posterior and anterior cavity in the eye

A

lens

464
Q

this is the outer layer of the eye

avascular

A

fibrous

465
Q

this is the middle layer of the eye

supply the outer layer with nutrients

A

vascular

466
Q

this is the inner layer of the eye

neurons

A

retina

467
Q

What are the parts of the fibrous tunic of the eye

A

sclera

cornea

468
Q

this is the white of the eye

A

sclera

469
Q

What are the functions of the schlera

A

white of the eye

composed of dense irregular CT

provides eye shape

attachment site of extrinsic eye muscles

470
Q

what are the functions of the cornea

A

anterior transparent “window”

avascular

refracts (bends ) light

white collagen then becomes clear

471
Q

this is a tough outer layer composed of sclera and cornea

A

fibrous tunic (exterior)

472
Q

what are the parts of the vascular tunic

A

choroid

ciliary body

iris

473
Q

this is the posterior region

this has many capillaries that nourish retina

many melanocytes make melanin to absorb extraneous light

A

choroid

474
Q

What are the parts of the cillary body

A

ciliary muscles

ciliary processes

475
Q

this is an enlarged region of the eye

A

cillary body

476
Q

this is smooth muscle connected to the lend via suspensory ligaments; altering lens shape

A

cillary muscles

477
Q

this contains capillaries secreting aqueous humor

A

cillary processes

478
Q

this is the colored region of the eye

A

iris

479
Q

what are the functions of the iris

A

smooth muscle

controls the size of the pupil

480
Q

what is the main function of the choroid

A

capillaries nourish the retina

make melanin to absorb light

481
Q

what are the main functions of the iris

A

gives eye color

controls size of the pupil

482
Q

what does the iris contain

A

smooth muscle

melanocytes

483
Q

what does the iris divid

A

the anterior segment of the eye into the anterior chamber (between the cornea and iris) and posterior chamber (between the iris and the lens)

484
Q

what are the muscles in the iris

A

sphincter pupillae

dilator pupillae

485
Q

concentrically circular fibers constrict pupil with parasympathetic nervous system activity

A

sphincter pupillae

486
Q

radially organized smooth muscle dilates pupil with sympathetic nervous system activity

A

dilator pupillae

487
Q

nervous tunic is also knwon as the

A

retina

488
Q

what are the parts of the nervous tunic

A

pigmented layer

neural layer
deeper layer

489
Q

this abosrbs stray light to prevent light scatter

A

pigmented layer

490
Q

this is the photoreceptors and associated neurons

this receives light and converts it to nerve signals

A

neural laye

491
Q

what is found in the retina

A

photoreceptors

492
Q

what are the types of cell layers in the retina

A

photoreceptor

bipolar

ganglion

493
Q

contains rods and cones

contains the pigments that react to light

A

photoreceptor cell layer

494
Q

middle layer

their dendrites receives synaptic input form rods and cones

A

bipolar cells

495
Q

their axons gather at the optic disc and form the optic nerve

A

ganglion cell layer

496
Q

What is the area of blind spot known as and what does it have

A

blind spot

no photoreceptors

optic disc (no rods or cones)

where the ganglion axons exit towards the brain

497
Q

fovea centralis has

A

the highest proportion of cones (hardly and rods)

this is the area of the sharpest vision

NO CONES

498
Q

this is the physical deterioration of the macula lutea

this is the leading cause of blindness in developed countries (diabetes, hypertension)

this is the loss of visual acuity in visual field

destroyed the photoreceptors

A

macular degeneration

499
Q

pigmented and inner neural layers separate

A

detached retina

500
Q

what is the cause and result of detached retina

A

head trauma

nutrient deprivation in inner neural layer

501
Q

What is the function of the lends

A

changes the shape to focus light on the retina

502
Q

what is the lens composed of

A

crystalin protein

503
Q

What is the lens enclosed by

A

dense fibrous elastic capsule

504
Q

What about the lens determines how well light refracts

A

change the shape of the lens to focus it on the retina

bends light and slows light

505
Q

What the lens shape determined by

A

cillary muscle and suspensory ligaments

506
Q

when something is close by, what shape do you want the lengs

A

big round

accomodation - muscle tenses and suspensory ligaments less tends, makes lens more spherical

507
Q

when something is far away, what sort of lens shape do you want

A

the muscle relaxes, suspensory ligaments are tense, lens flattened

508
Q

As we age, what happens to the lens

A

loses its elasticity making it more difficult to see things up close

509
Q

this is the small opacities within the lens

usually as a result of aging

reduced visual clarity and reduced color intensity

A

cataracts

510
Q

when do cataracts need to be removed

A

when it interferes with normal acitivities

511
Q

what are the types of humors

A

vitreous

aquous

512
Q

What are the characteristics of vitreous humor

A

gelatinous

posterior cavity

permanent fluid if first produced in embryonic development

helps eye maintain shape (intra-ocular layer)

keep retina against blood

supports the retina - keeps it flush against the back of the eye

513
Q

what are the characteristics of the aqueous humor

A

watery fluid

anterior cavity - in the front of the lens

continuously produced by ciliary processes

nourishes and oxygenated lens and inner cornea

constantly produced

514
Q

How to make aqueous humor

A

from vessels in the ciliary body in the posterior chamber

it drains from the chamber via scleral venous sinus canal of Schlemm and then to nearby veins

515
Q

what happens if there is a drainage failure when producing aqueous fluid

A

glaucoma

characterized by increased intraocular pressure (damage retina by constricting blood vessels)

causes reduced field of vision, dim vision, halos around light

push on lens and cause pressure on the nerve layer in the posterior lens

516
Q

far sighted

A

hyperopia

517
Q

near sighted

A

myopia

518
Q

trouble seeing up close; eyeball too short

how is it corrected

A

far sighted

corrected with convex lens

only convergent rays from distant points brought to focus

519
Q

trouble seeing faraway objects; eyeball too long

how to fix

A

near sighted

only rays close to eye focus on retina

corrected via concave lens

520
Q

this is when the cornea is not curved properly and as you focus light, you cannot focus

A

astigmatism

521
Q

age related change in vision

less less able to become spherical

A

presbyopia

reading up-close words becomes difficult

522
Q

How can light be bent into the eye

A

sharp vision requires light to be bent as they pass towards the retina

this results when the light passes through the cornea and then the lens

cornea bends light, the lens adjusts,

523
Q

what are the neurons in the retina

A

photoreceptors -deepest layer (rods and cones; need to be stimulated by the light )

bipolar cells 
ganglionic cells (go out as the optic nerve)
524
Q

what do rods do

A

more numerous

highly sensitive activated by even dim light - see gray

the periphery of the retina contains many rods

results in sensitivity to dim light but a blurry image

see grays

525
Q

what do cones do

A

less numerous

activated by high intensity light and allow color vision

have a one to one relationship with bipolar and ganglion cells

results in a sharp image but only possible in bright light

visual acuity (sharp vision)

526
Q

what happens in color blindness

A

x-linked recessive condition more common in males

this is the absence of deficit of one type of cone cell

red and green most affected

527
Q

what are the visual pathways

A

photoreceptors
bipolar cells

ganglion cells (which then bundle to form optic nerve)

528
Q

this is the exit backs of the eyes and converge at the optic chiasm

medial axons cross ot the opposite side of the brain

lateral axons remain on the same side

A

optic nerves

medial axons cross ot the opposite side of the brain

lateral axons remain on the same side

PHGY220 (1 decks)

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