Unit 4 | Primary needs

Question 1

What is the definition of a “need”?

Answer 1

A need is any condition inherent to a person that is essential and necessary for life, development, and well-being. When these needs are fulfilled, well-being is enhanced. If they are neglected or frustrated, physical or psychological well-being is harmed.

Question 2

What happens when needs are neglected or frustrated?

Answer 2

When needs are unmet or frustrated, it hinders well-being, leading to potential harm in either physical or psychological aspects. This disruption can cause damage, affecting a person’s overall health and mental state.

Question 3

What role do motivational states play in relation to needs?

Answer 3

Motivational states provide the drive or impetus to act before harm is done. They push individuals to take action to meet their needs and protect their well-being, whether physically or psychologically.

Question 4

What are physiological needs?

Answer 4

Physiological needs refer to the fundamental biological requirements necessary for survival. Examples include food, water, sleep, air, and shelter. These are the most basic needs, and if unmet, they lead to severe consequences such as death or illness.

Question 5

What are psychological needs?

Answer 5

Psychological needs are related to mental and emotional well-being. These needs include love, belonging, self-esteem, and the desire for autonomy and purpose. When unmet, they can lead to issues like loneliness, depression, or identity confusion.

Question 6

What are social needs?

Answer 6

Social needs are associated with relationships, community, and social connections. Humans are social beings, and fulfilling needs such as friendship, support, and belonging is crucial for mental and emotional stability. Lack of social connection can lead to isolation and negative mental health outcomes.

Question 7

How are physiological, psychological, and social needs interconnected?

Answer 7

These needs are all interconnected. For example, if physiological needs (like sleep) are not met, it can affect one’s psychological state (such as mood or cognitive function), which in turn can affect social relationships (leading to social withdrawal). Each type of need influences the others, and neglecting one can negatively impact the others.

Question 8

Why is it important to meet all types of needs?

Answer 8

Meeting all needs is essential for holistic well-being. If any one set of needs (physiological, psychological, or social) is neglected, it can affect a person’s overall health, happiness, and ability to function effectively. Balancing all needs helps maintain a healthy mind, body, and social life.

Question 9

What are physiological needs?

Answer 9

Physiological needs are the basic biological requirements necessary for survival. These include:

Thirst

Hunger

Sleep

Sex
These needs are essential for the proper functioning of the biological systems in the body. If unmet, they can lead to severe consequences like illness or death.

Question 10

What are psychological needs?

Answer 10

Psychological needs are related to mental health, personal development, and emotional well-being. These needs include:

Autonomy: The need for independence and control over one’s own actions.

Competence: The need to feel capable and effective in one’s actions.

Affinity: The need for connection, love, and belonging.

These needs are essential for personal growth and healthy emotional development. Unmet psychological needs can lead to feelings of inadequacy, frustration, or isolation.

Question 11

What are social needs?

Answer 11

Social needs are those related to our interactions and relationships with others. These needs are often learned or internalized through emotional experiences and socialization. They include:

Achievement: The desire to accomplish goals and succeed.

Intimacy: The need for deep personal connections, such as close friendships or romantic relationships.

Power: The need for influence, control, or recognition within social settings.

These needs are essential for maintaining positive relationships and thriving in social environments. If unmet, they can lead to social alienation or issues with self-worth.

Question 12

How are physiological, psychological, and social needs interconnected?

Answer 12

Physiological, psychological, and social needs are all interrelated. For example:

If physiological needs (such as sleep or hunger) are not met, it can affect one’s psychological state (mood, energy, focus).

Psychological needs (like autonomy or competence) can influence social interactions and relationships.

Social needs (such as intimacy or achievement) can impact one’s sense of self-worth and emotional well-being.

Neglecting one set of needs can affect the others, which highlights the importance of addressing all aspects of well-being.

Question 13

How are physiological needs different from psychological needs?

Answer 13

The distinction between physiological and psychological needs is relatively straightforward:

Physiological needs are directly tied to the functioning of biological systems (like the brain, hormones, and body organs). These are life-sustaining needs such as hunger, thirst, sleep, and sex.

Psychological needs are linked to mental and emotional health and well-being, such as autonomy, competence, and affinity. These needs are crucial for healthy development and emotional balance.

While physiological needs are life-threatening when unmet, psychological needs focus on personal growth and emotional stability.

Question 14

How do psychological needs differ from social needs?

Answer 14

The distinction between psychological and social needs is more subtle:

Psychological needs involve internal emotional processes related to individual growth, such as autonomy (independence), competence (feeling effective), and affinity (connection and love).

Social needs revolve around external interactions and relationships with others, such as achievement, intimacy, and power (influence, control, recognition).

Both sets of needs affect emotional well-being, but social needs often focus on relationships, while psychological needs focus on personal development.

Question 15

Why are physiological needs considered life-threatening emergencies when unmet?

Answer 15

Physiological needs involve biological systems that, if unmet, can lead to life-threatening emergencies. For example:

Hunger: If not satisfied, it can lead to malnutrition or death.

Thirst: Without water, the body will dehydrate, leading to severe health issues or death.

Sleep: Chronic sleep deprivation can cause serious physical and mental health issues.

These needs are critical for survival, and their neglect can lead to immediate and severe consequences.

Question 16

How are psychological and social needs present in the consciousness?

Answer 16

Psychological and social needs are always present in the consciousness, unlike physiological needs, which are cyclical (coming and going based on bodily states).

Psychological needs (such as the need for competence or autonomy) are consistently felt, often influencing thoughts, emotions, and actions.

Social needs (like intimacy or power) remain a part of our consciousness as we interact with others, influencing our relationships and social behaviors.

Both psychological and social needs shape our actions and choices regularly.

Question 17

What is the difference between deficiency motivation and growth motivation?

Answer 17

Deficiency motivation is driven by the lack of something or unmet needs, motivating us to address a shortage:

For example, when physiological needs (like hunger) are unmet, we are motivated by deficiency to obtain food.

Growth motivation is driven by the desire to develop or improve, not by deficiency:

Psychological and social needs like achievement, autonomy, or intimacy motivate individuals to grow, succeed, and connect, rather than just to fulfill basic deficiencies.

Some needs (like physiological) lead to deficiency motivation, while others (like psychological and social) stimulate growth motivation.

Question 18

How do physiological needs arise?

Answer 18

Physiological needs are inherent to everyone, as they are tied to the functioning of the body’s biological systems. They are necessary for survival and are a basic part of human nature.

Question 18

How do psychological needs arise?

Answer 18

Psychological needs are inherent to everyone. These needs are deeply tied to personal development, mental health, and emotional well-being, and are essential for individuals to feel fulfilled and grow.

Question 19

How do social needs arise?

Answer 19

Social needs arise depending on the social environment. These needs are influenced by the social context in which individuals find themselves, including cultural norms, relationships, and interpersonal interactions.

Question 20

How do we find physiological needs?

Answer 20

Physiological needs are often temporarily forgotten upon satisfaction. For example, once hunger is satisfied or thirst is quenched, we stop actively thinking about these needs. However, when these needs are unmet, they become life-threatening emergencies that demand attention.

Question 21

How do we find psychological needs?

Answer 21

Psychological needs are always present in the consciousness. They influence thoughts, emotions, and behavior and become prominent in situations where they can be satisfied, such as striving for personal growth, self-esteem, or emotional connection.

Question 22

How do we find social needs?

Answer 22

Social needs are also always present in the consciousness and become prominent in situations where they can be satisfied, such as forming relationships or achieving recognition in social groups.

Question 23

What are physiological needs looking for?

Answer 23

Physiological needs are focused on avoiding tissue damage and conserving resources. They help maintain biological balance and support the survival of the body, preventing harm that could result from unmet needs like hunger or dehydration.

Question 24

What are psychological needs looking for?

Answer 24

Psychological needs are focused on orienting self-development towards growth and adaptation. These needs drive individuals to seek fulfillment in personal growth, competence, emotional health, and learning.

Question 25

What are social needs looking for?

Answer 25

Social needs aim at preserving identity, beliefs, values, and interpersonal relationships. These needs help individuals form strong social bonds and maintain their sense of self through connections with other

Question 26

What happens when several needs occur at the same time?

Answer 26

The complexity of human behavior means that multiple needs often arise simultaneously. Since these needs can be very different (e.g., physiological, psychological, social), they may require different motivated behaviors to fulfill them. In such cases, the intensity of the needs plays a crucial role. The most intense need (the one felt most strongly or urgently) will typically determine the behavior to be performed. For example, if both hunger (a physiological need) and the need for social connection (a social need) are present, the person may prioritize eating first, as hunger is life-threatening and more urgent.

Question 27

What is Drive Theory?

Answer 27

Drive Theory, created by Clark Hull (1943), is a biologically based theory of motivation. It suggests that physiological deprivations (like lack of food, water, or sleep) create biological needs. If these needs remain unmet, the resulting biological deprivation becomes strong enough to grab attention and generate psychological drive, motivating behavior to fulfill the need.

Question 28

What is a "drive" in the context of Drive Theory?

Answer 28

A drive is the conscious manifestation of an underlying unconscious physiological need. For example, when you are thirsty (an unconscious physiological need), you become consciously driven to find and drink water. The drive is the psychological experience of the body’s unmet physiological need.

Question 29

What is the Need-Drive Behavior Sequence?

Answer 29

The Need-Drive Behavior Sequence is a cyclical pattern that illustrates how a biological need, when unmet, generates a drive that motivates behavior aimed at satisfying the need. This sequence involves seven core regulatory processes: Need: A physiological deprivation (e.g., hunger, thirst). Drive: The psychological manifestation of the need (feeling hungry or thirsty). Homeostasis: The body’s attempt to restore balance by fulfilling the need. Negative Feedback: Signals that tell the body when the need has been satisfied and homeostasis is restored. Multiple Inputs/Multiple Outputs: Different factors influence behavior and the body's response to needs. Intraorganismic Mechanisms: Internal physiological mechanisms (e.g., hormones or neural circuits) that regulate behavior. Extraorganismic Mechanisms: External factors (e.g., environmental conditions, social influences) that affect behavior.

Question 30

What is homeostasis in the context of the Need-Drive Behavior Sequence?

Answer 30

Homeostasis refers to the body's natural tendency to maintain balance and stability. When a physiological need (e.g., hunger) arises, the body works to restore balance (e.g., by eating). Once the need is fulfilled, homeostasis is restored, and the drive subsides.

Question 31

What is negative feedback in the Need-Drive Behavior Sequence?

Answer 31

Negative feedback is a process that signals when a need has been met and homeostasis has been restored. For example, once you’ve eaten enough food and your body is no longer hungry, the sensation of hunger fades due to negative feedback, signaling that the drive has been satisfied.

Question 32

What does multiple inputs/multiple outputs refer to in regulation?

Answer 32

Multiple inputs/multiple outputs refers to the idea that different factors influence the behavior that addresses needs. For example, both biological factors (like low blood sugar) and environmental factors (like the sight or smell of food) can affect the drive to eat. Multiple factors can influence the decision to engage in behavior to satisfy needs.

Question 33

What are intraorganismic mechanisms?

Answer 33

Intraorganismic mechanisms are internal physiological processes that regulate behavior to fulfill needs. For example, the hormonal signals that trigger hunger, or the neural circuits that make us feel thirsty, are intraorganismic mechanisms that help detect and respond to physiological deficits.

Question 34

What are extraorganismic mechanisms?

Answer 34

Extraorganismic mechanisms are external factors that can influence behavior and the satisfaction of needs. These can include environmental conditions, such as availability of food or social influences (like social eating). These factors interact with internal mechanisms and can modify the expression of need-driven behavior.

Question 35

What does it mean that drive has multiple inputs and multiple outputs?

Answer 35

Drive arises from a number of different sources (inputs), and it motivates a range of goal-directed behaviors (outputs). These inputs and outputs work together to fulfill the need until satiety (satisfaction) occurs. For example, the drive for thirst can be activated by: Sweating Eating salty foods Donating blood Even the time of day These diverse inputs create the same drive (thirst), motivating behaviors like drinking water (the output) to satisfy the need.

Question 36

What are multiple inputs that can activate the drive for thirst?

Answer 36

Thirst can be activated by a variety of factors, such as: Sweating (losing water through the skin) Eating salty foods (increasing salt concentration in the body) Donating blood (losing bodily fluids) Even at a particular time of day (circadian rhythms influencing hydration needs) These various inputs trigger the same drive, motivating the behavior of drinking fluids to satisfy thirst.

Question 37

How does the cold drive work with multiple outputs?

Answer 37

When feeling cold, there are multiple behaviors (outputs) that the body can engage in to raise body temperature: Shivering (muscles contract to generate heat) Putting on a jacket (external means to trap body heat) Both behaviors are goal-directed to achieve the same end result: raising body temperature and restoring homeostasis.

Question 38

How does drive lead to goal-directed behaviors?

Answer 38

Drive arises from physiological needs (like hunger, thirst, or cold), and it motivates goal-directed behaviors to fulfill those needs. These behaviors may vary based on the inputs that trigger the drive. For instance, the thirst drive could lead to drinking water, eating foods with high water content, or resting to reduce fluid loss. All behaviors are aimed at satisfying the underlying need (e.g., thirst, hunger, or temperature regulation).

Question 39

What happens when satiety occurs in the drive sequence?

Answer 39

Satiety occurs when the drive is satisfied, and the body has met its needs. For example: After drinking enough water, the thirst drive fades because the need is fulfilled. After eating, hunger drives subside as the body receives sufficient food. Once satiety is reached, the psychological drive is reduced or eliminated, and the behavior ceases.

Question 40

What are intraorganismic mechanisms?

Answer 40

Intraorganismic mechanisms refer to biological regulatory systems within the person that work together to activate, maintain, and terminate the biological needs that underlie psychological drive. These systems include processes like hormonal regulation, neural circuits, and internal physiological responses. For example, when you are hungry, neurotransmitters and hormones like ghrelin are involved in activating the drive to eat and maintaining that motivation until the need is satisfied.

Question 41

What are extraorganismic mechanisms?

Answer 41

Extraorganismic mechanisms include external environmental influences that contribute to the activation, maintenance, and termination of psychological drive. These influences shape how we respond to internal drives and needs. Key categories of extraorganismic mechanisms are: Cognitive influences: How thoughts and beliefs influence the perception of needs. Environmental influences: The physical environment (e.g., availability of food, temperature). Social influences: Interactions with others, social norms, or group dynamics. Cultural influences: Societal values, traditions, and practices that guide behavior and need fulfillment.

Question 42

How do intraorganismic mechanisms function to regulate biological needs?

Answer 42

Intraorganismic mechanisms help maintain homeostasis by regulating internal physiological processes. For example: Hunger triggers signals in the brain and stomach, prompting the desire to eat. Thirst activates hormonal and neural systems to make you seek water. Temperature regulation activates mechanisms like shivering or sweating to maintain optimal body temperature. These mechanisms help ensure that biological needs are satisfied and that the body returns to balance.

Question 43

How do extraorganismic mechanisms influence drive and behavior?

Answer 43

Extraorganismic mechanisms influence drive and behavior through external factors. For example: Cognitive influences: Thoughts and perceptions about needs (e.g., belief that one should eat at a particular time or because it’s part of a tradition). Environmental influences: The availability of resources (e.g., food in your surroundings) or environmental cues (e.g., temperature or weather conditions). Social influences: Peer pressure or social expectations can influence behavior, such as when people eat based on social events or habits. Cultural influences: Cultural norms and values shape how needs are recognized and addressed, such as how food or sleep is viewed in different cultures.

Question 44

How do intraorganismic and extraorganismic mechanisms interact?

Answer 44

Intraorganismic and extraorganismic mechanisms work together to regulate behavior. For instance: Hunger (intraorganismic) may be triggered by low blood sugar, but the availability of food (extraorganismic) and cultural eating norms will influence whether or not the need is met. Temperature regulation (intraorganismic) might prompt the body to seek warmth, but environmental factors like the availability of clothing or social situations (e.g., gathering with others in cold weather) will influence how the body responds.

Question 45

Do all needs motivate us in the same way?

Answer 45

No, not all needs motivate us in the same way. The motivating power of a need can vary depending on the type and urgency of the need. Some needs are more pressing and require immediate attention (e.g., physiological needs like hunger and thirst), while others are less urgent and relate to higher levels of personal development (e.g., self-actualization).

Question 46

What is Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs?

Answer 46

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, proposed in 1954, is a hierarchical organization of human needs arranged from basic to more complex. According to Maslow: Physiological needs: Basic survival needs (e.g., food, water, sleep). Safety needs: Protection from danger and security. Love and belonging needs: Social connections and relationships. Esteem needs: Self-esteem, respect from others, and recognition. Self-actualization: Personal growth, achieving potential, and fulfillment. Maslow's theory suggests that lower-level needs (like physiological) must be satisfied before higher-level needs (like self-actualization) can be pursued.

Question 47

How does Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs work?

Answer 47

Maslow's Hierarchy proposes that our needs are arranged in a pyramid with basic physiological needs at the bottom, and more complex psychological and self-fulfillment needs at the top. Basic needs (like hunger or safety) must be met first, and only once they are satisfied can we move on to fulfilling higher-order needs (such as relationships or self-esteem). The highest level, self-actualization, involves reaching one's full potential and finding meaning and purpose in life.

Question 48

What is a criticism of Maslow’s theory regarding research?

Answer 48

Maslow’s theory is not based on formal research but rather on his subjective observations and the biographical analysis of individuals he considered self-actualized. This means his ideas were shaped more by personal interpretation than scientific validation.

Question 49

What criticism exists about the scientific validity of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

Answer 49

There is no scientific evidence proving the existence or order of the hierarchy of needs proposed by Maslow. His theory has not been definitively proven by formal research or experimental data.

Question 50

What is a criticism about the pyramid representation of Maslow’s theory?

Answer 50

The pyramid representation of Maslow’s hierarchy was not created by Maslow himself. It was introduced later as a didactic simplification to make the theory easier to understand. However, it is seen as overly rigid and linear, which does not align with the dynamic and complex nature of human motivation.

Question 51

What is the issue with the rigidity and linear progression suggested by Maslow’s theory?

Answer 51

The pyramid suggests a rigid and linear progression through needs (from basic to higher-level). However, human motivation is not always sequential. People may work on multiple needs simultaneously or may not follow a predictable, step-by-step progression. Motivation is dynamic and flexible.

Question 52

Why is it problematic to classify human needs in a single way according to Maslow’s theory?

Answer 52

Human needs cannot be classified or satisfied in a single way. They depend on the individual and their context. What one person sees as a priority (e.g., self-actualization) might be different for someone else, influenced by cultural, social, or personal factors.

Question 53

What is the issue with the assumption that lower needs must be met first in Maslow’s theory?

Answer 53

The assumption that lower needs must be fulfilled before higher needs is not always true. For example, some people may achieve self-actualization without having their basic needs fully met, or others might pursue higher-level needs while still grappling with unmet lower-level needs. Motivation is more flexible than this theory suggests.

Question 54

Why is Maslow's theory criticized for generalizing human motivation?

Answer 54

Maslow’s theory generalizes human motivation without considering important factors like individual, cultural, and contextual differences. Needs may be prioritized or perceived differently based on personal experiences, cultural values, or social context, which the theory does not fully account for.

Question 55

What is a criticism of the sample Maslow used in his theory?

Answer 55

Maslow’s sample was limited and biased, as it was based mainly on successful Western men. This creates a cultural bias, as the theory might not be applicable to people from different cultures or backgrounds, where needs and motivations might be viewed and prioritized differently.

Question 56

What happens when our body loses about 2 percent of its water volume?

Answer 56

When the body loses about 2 percent of its water volume, it triggers the sensation of thirst. Dehydration occurs with a 3 percent loss of water, signaling a more severe biological need for water intake to restore homeostasis.

Question 57

How is thirst a self-regulatory mechanism?

Answer 57

Thirst is a self-regulatory mechanism that helps maintain the appropriate water level in the body. This ensures that metabolic functions within the cells can continue to function properly. When the body’s water volume falls below an optimal level, the physiological need for water turns into the psychological experience of thirst.

Question 58

What are the relevant environmental factors that influence liquid consumption?

Answer 58

The two main environmental factors influencing liquid consumption are: Taste: The taste of liquids, such as water or beverages, plays a role in motivating us to drink. Discriminative stimuli: These are external cues or signals that can trigger drinking behavior, like seeing a glass of water or hearing a sound associated with drinking.

Question 59

What happens when alterations in the motivational system affect thirst?

Answer 59

When the motivational system is altered, it can result in excessive consumption of liquids, potentially leading to overhydration or an imbalance in bodily fluid levels. This can disrupt the homeostasis the body seeks to maintain.

Question 60

How does alcohol consumption relate to thirst regulation?

Answer 60

Alcohol consumption does not follow typical regulatory variables like thirst, which responds to dehydration or water balance. Instead, alcohol consumption is more influenced by learning and psychological factors (e.g., social settings, habits, or conditioned cues), rather than actual hydration needs.

Question 61

What is the incentive value of pure water?

Answer 61

Pure water is tasteless and does not offer any incentive value beyond water replenishment. The primary motivation for drinking plain water is to satisfy the physiological need for hydration.

Question 62

How does adding flavor to water affect drinking behavior?

Answer 62

When flavor is added to water, drinking behavior changes based on the incentive value of the liquid. The flavor makes the liquid more attractive and can encourage drinking for reasons beyond just hydration, such as taste enjoyment or preference.

Question 63

How does water deprivation affect the perception of water's taste?

Answer 63

Water deprivation complicates the relationship between taste and drinking behavior because it can alter the perception of the taste of water. Thirst can make water taste more appealing or refreshing, influencing the desire to drink even if the water itself remains neutral in taste.

Question 64

Does sweet flavor relate to thirst?

Answer 64

Sweet flavor is not directly related to thirst. While sweetness can influence drinking behavior, it is more associated with the pleasure of drinking rather than satisfying the physiological need for water.

Question 65

What drives addiction in drinking behavior—water or something else?

Answer 65

The addiction is likely to the substance in the water (like sugar or electrolytes) rather than to water itself. Substances like sugar or salts in flavored drinks can lead to habitual or addictive behavior, not the basic act of drinking water for hydration.

Question 66

Why do we drink water for thirst-related reasons?

Answer 66

We drink water primarily to satisfy the biological need for hydration. This is driven by thirst, which is a physiological need to maintain water balance in the body.

Question 67

How does sweet taste influence drinking behavior if it's not related to thirst?

Answer 67

Sweet taste in water influences drinking behavior because of the attractive incentive value of flavored liquids. The pleasure derived from the taste of sweet water can motivate us to drink even if we are not thirsty.

Question 68

What leads to addiction in drinking water if it's not related to thirst?

Answer 68

The addiction is often to substances in the water (e.g., sugar, electrolytes, or other additives), not to the water itself. These substances can create a habitual or craving-driven desire to drink, even in the absence of thirst.

Question 69

What is the cultural prescription about drinking eight glasses of water per day, and is it scientifically supported?

Answer 69

The eight glasses of water per day recommendation is a cultural prescription, but there is no scientific evidence supporting this exact quantity. In reality, food intake provides about 20% of total water intake, and beverages of all types contribute the rest. The need for water intake varies based on factors like activity level, climate, and individual needs.

Question 70

What are the main mechanisms regulating hunger?

Answer 70

The main mechanisms regulating hunger are homeostatic and metabolic. These processes work to maintain the body’s balance of energy and nutrients, ensuring that physiological needs are met.

Question 71

How does the hypothalamus regulate hunger?

Answer 71

The hypothalamus is the primary hunger regulatory center in the brain. It has two key parts: Lateral hypothalamus: Stimulates the feeling of hunger and promotes ingestion (eating). Ventromedial hypothalamus: Signals satiety (feeling of fullness), helping to stop eating once enough food has been consumed.

Question 72

How do external stimuli affect hunger and eating behavior?

Answer 72

External stimuli, such as the sight, smell, or even the time of day, can influence hunger and eating behavior. Sometimes, these cues can trigger eating even if the body doesn’t need food, illustrating that hunger is not always linked to true physiological needs.

Question 73

How is hunger different from eating behavior?

Answer 73

Hunger refers to the physiological need for food driven by homeostatic mechanisms, while eating behavior involves the actual action of eating that can be influenced by external cues, emotional states, or habits, even when hunger is not present.

Question 74

What environmental factors influence eating behavior?

Answer 74

Environmental influences include the time of day, stress, and the sight, smell, appearance, and taste of food. These cues can significantly affect when, how much, and what we eat, even in the absence of true hunger.

Question 75

How does food variety affect eating behavior?

Answer 75

Eating behavior increases significantly when an individual is confronted with a variety of foods, nutrients, and tastes. The presence of multiple food options can encourage greater food consumption (Rolls, 1979; Rolls, Rowe, & Rolls, 1982).

Question 76

What is the effect of food variety availability on eating?

Answer 76

The availability of food variety encourages more eating compared to a monotonous diet. For example, even if an individual only has one type of food (like ice cream), offering different flavors increases food intake (Beatty, 1982).

Question 77

How does social context affect eating behavior?

Answer 77

Eating is often a social occasion, and people tend to eat more when they are in the presence of others. Social interactions and the influence of companions can lead to increased food consumption during meals.

Question 78

What are the short-term physiological models that explain hunger?

Answer 78

The glycostatic hypothesis is a short-term physiological model that explains hunger. It suggests that blood glucose levels regulate hunger, with low blood glucose triggering feelings of hunger and encouraging eating, while eating restores glucose levels and stops hunger.

Question 79

How do long-term physiological models explain hunger?

Answer 79

Long-term models involve the body's fat reserves (adipose mass), which act as an additional energy source when needed. Fat stores help maintain energy balance over time, working in conjunction with blood glucose regulation to keep energy levels stable.

Question 80

What are some cognitive, social, and environmental factors that affect hunger?

Answer 80

Cognitive, social, and environmental models highlight how external factors influence hunger. These include the availability of food, its appearance, odor, sight, cultural influences, and smell. These factors can influence hunger and eating behavior beyond just physiological needs.

Question 81

How does the body naturally regulate weight?

Answer 81

The body naturally regulates weight through physiological mechanisms such as the glucostatic hypothesis (blood glucose regulation) and the lipostatic hypothesis (regulation of fat stores). These mechanisms work together to maintain energy balance and prevent excessive weight loss or gain.

Question 82

How do people often try to override natural weight regulation?

Answer 82

People often try to override the body’s natural weight regulation mechanisms to meet personal or cultural weight expectations. This can lead to dieting, where individuals aim to control their weight according to external standards, rather than allowing the body’s natural processes to govern it.

Question 83

How does dieting involve cognitive control?

Answer 83

Dieting requires suppressing natural hunger cues and replacing them with conscious cognitive control, such as eating based on a set schedule rather than eating when hungry. This involves self-discipline and may ignore the body’s physiological signals.

Question 84

What is the main issue with cognitive control in dieting?

Answer 84

The main issue with cognitive control in dieting is that it lacks a negative feedback system to help regulate and stop eating. This can lead to overeating or binging when the cognitive control is exhausted or overwhelmed, as it does not have the built-in stop mechanism that natural hunger regulation provides.

Question 85

How does the body defend its weight during dieting?

Answer 85

The body naturally defends its weight through physiological regulation, and when people attempt to change their weight through dieting, they often face resistance from the body’s homeostatic mechanisms. This can create a conflict when the body’s regulated weight doesn’t match a person’s personal or cultural weight aspirations.

Question 86

How does cognitive control interact with physiological needs in dieting?

Answer 86

Cognitive control in dieting tries to override physiological hunger cues, but it lacks a negative feedback system to stop overeating. As a result, people often become vulnerable to binge eating when physiological needs (hunger) become overwhelming or when external factors interfere.

Question 87

Why do people often underestimate biological drives during dieting?

Answer 87

People tend to believe that willpower is stronger than their hunger. However, physiological needs become overwhelming, especially during extreme conditions like fasting. This leads to a loss of control and may result in binge eating.

Question 88

How do external and emotional disruptions contribute to binge eating?

Answer 88

External factors (e.g., alcohol, social settings) and emotional disruptions (e.g., anxiety, depression) weaken cognitive control. This leads to the restraint-release phenomenon, where cognitive inhibition is lost, and overeating or binging occurs.

Question 89

What is the sleep motivational system?

Answer 89

The sleep motivational system is a homeostatic system that regulates sleep behavior. It is responsible for driving the need for sleep, and its physiological regulatory mechanisms significantly influence how and when we sleep.

Question 90

Why is sleep considered a necessity for life?

Answer 90

Sleep is essential for survival as it allows the body and mind to restore and repair themselves. Life is not possible without the dedication to frequent and relatively long-lasting periods of sleep, as it supports key physiological and cognitive functions.

Question 91

How can sleep behavior be modified or altered?

Answer 91

Although sleep is a biological necessity, it can be significantly modified by factors such as lifestyle, environment, work schedules, and technology use. Sleep habits can change based on these influences, sometimes leading to irregular sleep patterns.

Question 92

What factors influence sleep disorders like insomnia?

Answer 92

Sleep disorders, especially insomnia, are influenced by a variety of factors, including diet, medications, mental disorders, and intense emotional reactions. These can disrupt s

Question 93

What is one of the best ways to improve sleep quality?

Answer 93

Establish a regular schedule for going to bed and waking up. Consistency helps regulate your body’s internal clock and improves sleep quality.

Question 94

How long should naps be to avoid disrupting sleep at night?

Answer 94

If taking naps, they should not exceed 45 minutes of daytime sleep. Longer naps can interfere with your ability to fall asleep at night.

Question 95

What should be avoided before bedtime to improve sleep?

Answer 95

Avoid excessive alcohol intake at least 4 hours before bedtime. Do not smoke before sleep. Avoid caffeine (coffee, chocolate, tea, energy drinks, sodas) at least 6 hours before bed.

Question 96

What lifestyle habits should be avoided before bedtime?

Answer 96

Avoid heavy, spicy, or sugary foods at least 4 hours before bed, as they can interfere with digestion and sleep quality. Avoid exercising right before bedtime as it can increase energy and delay sleep onset.

Question 97

How should you use the bed to promote better sleep?

Answer 97

Reserve the bed only for sleeping and sex. Avoid using the bed for work, entertainment, or other activities to strengthen the association between the bed and sleep.

Question 98

How is sexual behavior categorized in humans compared to other species?

Answer 98

In most species, sexual behavior is determined by physiological processes and is directly linked to reproduction. However, in humans, sexuality is a primary motivational system with a homeostatic function, but it is independent of reproduction, influenced by various situational and psychological factors.

Question 99

What factors influence human sexual behavior?

Answer 99

Situational variables (environment, context), behavioral habits, moral values, and previous experiences all play a significant role in shaping human sexual behavior. These are often as important as or more important than physiological factors.

Question 100

How do hormones influence sexual behavior in humans?

Answer 100

Hormones influence human sexual behavior, but they do not solely determine it. Unlike many animals, human sexual behavior is influenced by hormones but is also shaped by a variety of social, cognitive, and emotional factors.

Question 101

Why is sexual behavior considered a primary need in humans?

Answer 101

Sexual behavior is considered a primary need because it is essential for the survival of the species. However, it is not determined strictly by physiological needs, unlike other primary needs like hunger or thirst.

Question 102

What are universally attractive physical characteristics based on facial features?

Answer 102

Universally attractive facial features are often those that indicate neonatal (youthful) qualities, sexual maturity, and expressive characteristics. These features tend to signal health and genetic fitness.

Question 103

How is sexual orientation typically understood?

Answer 103

Sexual orientation is viewed as a continuum, ranging from exclusively heterosexual to bisexual, and then to purely homosexual. It is not seen as a conscious choice but rather as being influenced by genetic and environmental factors.

Question 104

What are some of the potential factors influencing sexual orientation?

Answer 104

Genetics and prenatal hormonal exposure are two factors that may play a role in determining sexual orientation, though research is still ongoing.

Question 105

What are some common myths about homosexuality?

Answer 105

Myth 1: Homosexuality is caused by a dominant mother and a weak father. (This theory is not supported by research.) Myth 2: Homosexuality is caused by exposure to an older same-sex seducer. (This theory is also unsupported by evidence.)

Question 106

Why do we struggle with self-regulation of our physiological needs?

Answer 106

We often fail because exercising conscious mental control over physiological needs, like hunger or thirst, can do more harm than good. We may try to control these urges, but they often overwhelm us.

Question 107

What are the main reasons we fail to self-regulate our physiological needs?

Answer 107

Underestimating the power of biological drives: We often fail to realize how intense the urges can be when we’re not actively experiencing them. Setting unrealistic standards: We create goals that are too difficult to achieve, which makes it hard to manage our physiological needs effectively.

Question 108

What is the key to successfully regulating physiological needs?

Answer 108

The key is setting realistic standards, focusing on long-term goals, and monitoring your own actions to stay on track.