unit 5 biology Flashcards
(101 cards)
1
Q
What is the equation for Cardiac Output?
what is cardiac output ?
what is heart rate?
what is stroke volume?
A
Cardiac output = Heart Rate X Stroke Volume
the volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute.
number of heart beats per minute
volume of blood pumped out of the heart each beat
2
Q
right/ left pulmonary artery
right/ left pulmonary vein
A
To transport deoxygenated blood away from right ventricle in the heart to the lungs to collect
oxygen.
To deliver oxygenated blood from the lungs into the left atria of the heart.
3
Q
aorta
superior vena cava
inferior vena cava
A
carries oxygenated blood to the body
carries deoxygenated blood from the upper body
carries deoxygenated blood from the lower and middle body
4
Q
right atrium
left atrium
right ventricle
left ventricle
A
receive deoxygenated blood from the body
receive the oxygenated blood returning from the lungs
pumps oxygen-depleted blood to the lungs.
pump oxygenated blood to the body
5
Q
coronary arteries
Myocardium
Pericardium
A
carry oxygenated blood to the heart muscle itself.
a fibrous membrane that surrounds and protects the heart.
the middle and thickest layer of the heart wall, composed of cardiac muscle.
6
Q
semilunar valve
(atrioventricular) bicuspid valve/ tricuspid valve
A
ventricles relax, close to prevent blood from flowing back into the ventricles.
ventricles contract, close to prevent blood from flowing back into the atria
7
Q
sinoatrial node
bundle of his
purkinje fibres
septum
A
hearts pacemaker,regualr contraction of heart muscle
transmits impulses from av node to ventricle
sends nerve impulses to the ventricles
divides left and right side of heart
8
Q
4 chambered heart model
A
deoxygenated blood enters right atrium,
pushed by muscles in right ventricle to lungs
becomes oxygenated
returns from lungs through left atrium
pushed into left ventricle and out into body through aorta.
9
Q
arteries
A
thick walls withstand the high pressure of blood ejected from the heart
abundant elastic fibers allow them to expand
smaller lumens maintain the pressure of blood
10
Q
capillaries
A
very thin wall, allow rapid exchange between blood and tissues
small lumen link arteries and veins
11
Q
veins
A
thin wall, blood under low pressure
no smooth muscle/ elastic fibres= no pulse of blood so not required to stretch
wide lumen= large volume acts as blood reservoir
valves= stop backflow ensuring one way flow to heart
12
Q
ABO blood type systems
A
blood group A – has A antigens, B antibodies
blood group B – has B antigens, A antibodies
blood group O – has no antigens, but both A and B antibodies
blood group AB – has both A and B antigens, but no antibodies
13
Q
universal donors
A
O Rh negative , no A,B antigens
14
Q
rheus system
A
Rh positive blood can recieve Rh negative blood
Rh negative blood cannot recieve Rh positive blood
15
Q
elctro cardiogram
A
electrical changes in the heart. can be used tp diagnose cardiovascular diseases
16
Q
normal rhythm: sinus arrhythmia: bradycardia: tachycardia: ventricular fibrillation: a flat line:
A
60-100 beats per minute
normal beats, triggered at an irregular interval
less than 60 bpm
more than 100bpm
irregular ventricular rate
no signal, resuscitation is needed or can result in death.
17
Q
atrial diastole
step 1
A
Both atria relax and fill with blood from the pulmonary vein and vena cava.
18
Q
ventricular diastole.
step 2
A
The atria contract and force the atrioventricular (AV) valves open. Blood flows into the ventricles and they fill up;
19
Q
step 3
A
The AV valves close when the pressure in the ventricles rises above the pressure in the atria to prevent the backflow of blood into the atria.
20
Q
step 4
A
The ventricle walls contract and increase pressure in the ventricles. This forces the semi-lunar valves to open and the blood flows into the pulmonary artery and aorta.
21
Q
step 5
A
When the pressure in the aorta and pulmonary artery
rises, the semi-lunar valves close to prevent backflow of
blood into the ventricles.
22
Q
Wave P
A
shows excitation of the atria, when they begin to contract and therefore represents atrial systole
23
Q
Wave QRS
A
indicates excitation of the ventricles, when they begin to contract and therefore represents ventricular systole
24
Q
Wave T
A
shows diastole, when the heart chambers are relaxing
25
gentics
| inactivity
inherit tendancy- family history increases risk
| exercise reduces risk of cbd by refuvong blood presuure and rasing HDL
26
age
gender
high blood pressure
elasticity and width of arteries decrease with age
oestrogens protects women from cvd before menopause
should not be above 140 mmHG and 90 mmHg diastolic
27
smoking
| diet
chemicals in smoke damage and constrict artery linings
| high intake of salt, and limited healthy fats and vitamins
28
antihypertensive
reduces high blood pressure but vaj cause dizziness, nausea and cramps
29
statins
reduces LDL by inhibiting enzyme in the liver but causes tiredness, disturbed sleep, nausea, diarrhea headache muscle weakness
30
transplantation and immunosuppression
properly functioning heart but risk of rejection, increasing risk of infection
31
caffeine
increasing the electrical activity of the SAN.
increase in the rate of contraction and relaxation of each heartbeat.
a larger volume of blood can be pumped out every time the heart beats.
32
daphnia heart rate
The presence of caffeine increases the heart rate of Daphnia. When the concentration of caffeine solution used increases, the heart rate of Daphnia also increases.
33
trachea
serves as passage for air, moistens and warms it while it passes into the lungs, and protects the respiratory surface from an accumulation of foreign particles. The trachea is lined with a moist mucous-membrane layer composed of cells containing small hairlike projections called cilia.
34
bronchi/bronchioles
Their function is to further warm, moisten, and clean the inspired air and distribute it to the gas exchanging zone of the lung.
35
alveoli
lungs and the blood exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide during the process of breathing in and breathing out. Oxygen breathed in from the air passes through the alveoli and into the blood and travels to the tissues throughout the body.
36
capillary network
delivering oxygen in the blood to the tissues, and picking up carbon dioxide to be eliminated. They are also the place where nutrients are delivered to feed all of the cells of the body.
37
intercostal muscles
several groups of muscles that run between the ribs, and help form and move the chest wall. The intercostal muscles are mainly involved in the mechanical aspect of breathing. These muscles help expand and shrink the size of the chest cavity to facilitate breathing.
38
diaphragm
contracts rhythmically and continually, and most of the time, involuntarily. Upon inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and flattens and the chest cavity enlarges
39
Pleural Membranes
to protect the lungs because lung tissue is delicate and can be easily damaged. enclose a fluid-filled space surrounding the lungs which provides lubrication. enable the lungs to move easily, minimising friction from other organs.
40
inspiration
diaphragm, contracts and moves down to become flat.
more oxygen required = external intercostals contract and move ribcage upwards and outwards
volume of thoracic cavity increases
pressure decreases in lungs compared to outside
air rushes in
41
expiration
internal costals contract and move rib cage inwards and downwards
abdominal muscles contract and the stomach and liver push diaphragm back so its domed again
volume of thoracic cavity decreases
pressure increases
air rushes out
42
Mechanical Ventilation
require power and controlled by a computer.
air is pumped into patient's trachea through an endotracheal tube or tracheostomy tube
increases pressure until the end of ventilator breath
pressure then drops to 0
chest and lungs contract and psh the air in the lungs out through passive expiration
43
intercostal muscle
Intercostal muscles are several groups of muscles that run between the ribs, and help form and move the chest wall. The intercostal muscles are mainly involved in the mechanical aspect of breathing. These muscles help expand and shrink the size of the chest cavity to facilitate breathing.
44
tidal volume TV
normal breathing volume, 0.5 dm3
45
inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
The volume of air that can be breathed in when you take a big breath, over and above normal tidal volume. This is approximately 2.5–3 dm3.
46
Residual volume
The volume of air that always remains in your
| lungs after you have breathed out. This is approximately 1.5 dm3.
47
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
the maximum amount you can breathe in and out. approx 1 dm3.
48
Vital capacity
maximum volume of air that can be moved in and out of your lungs in one breath. ; it is approx 5 dm3.
49
Total lung capacity
calculated by adding together the person’s vital capacity and the residual volume. the total lung volume of a person.
50
Forced vital capacity
the total volume of air exhaled; it is normally equal to the vital capacity. determine the amount of obstruction that a person has in their airways.
51
Peak expiratory flow
measures the speed of air flowing out of a person when they breathe out as fast and as much as they can. indicate how well the lungs are functioning.
52
tidal volume
the height of the peaks after the deep breath out
53
breathing rate
Count the number of breaths taken per minute on the time trace. count full breaths, so count the number of peaks (or troughs) in 1 minute
54
osmoregulation
the control of water and salt levels in the body which prevents problems with osmosis
55
ureter
transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder.
| made of smooth muscle fibres.
56
bladder
collects urine from the kidneys before disposal by
| urination. urine enters ureter and urine leaves urethra.
57
renal artery and vein
The renal arteries deliver an oxygen-rich blood supply to the cells in each kidney. leaves the kidney via the renal veins and is transported in the inferior vena cava back to the heart.
58
Glomerulus And Its Role In Ultrafiltration
The glomerulus receives blood from the afferent arteriole and the blood leaves through the efferent arteriole.
59
ultrafiltration
filter blood in bowman's capsule
The afferent arterioles are wider than the efferent arterioles; this difference in diameter increases the pressure in the blood capillaries of the glomerulus and
pushes fluid out of the capillaries and into the Bowman’s capsule where there is a lower pressure. The fluid pushed out of the blood capillaries contains water, amino acids, glucose, urea and inorganic ions for example sodium, chloride and potassium.
60
loop of henle
produces a very high concentration of solutes , it has low water potential; consists of:
the descending limb, which descends from the cortex into the medulla
the ascending limb, which ascends from the medulla into the cortex
61
nephron
Urine is produced here. Each nephron starts in the cortex of the kidney. water potential in the blood capillaries is very low after ultrafiltration helping reabsorb water later
62
Afferent arterioles
a group of blood vessels that supply the nephrons in many excretory system.
63
Water potential
a measure of the ability of water molecules to move freely in solution
64
Endothelium of the blood capillary:
small gaps in between the cells that line the blood capillary so that blood plasma and the substances dissolved in it can pass through.
65
Basement membrane of Bowman’s capsule:
consists of a very thin network of collagen fibres and
glycoproteins. It acts as a filter to prevent the movement of larger substances from the blood capillary into the Bowman’s capsule.
66
Epithelial cells of Bowman’s capsule:
This enables the fluid from the capillary to pass between the cells into the Bowman’s capsule.
67
proximal convoluted tubule
reabsorption of filtrate in accordance with the needs of homeostasis (equilibrium), whereas the distal part of the nephron and collecting duct are mainly concerned with the detailed regulation of water, electrolyte, and hydrogen-ion balance.
68
selective reabsorption of glucose
```
after being filtered out of the capillaries along with nitrogenous waste products (i.e. urea) and water in the glomerulus, are reabsorbed from the filtrate as they pass through the nephron.
majority of filtrate is returned in pct
glucose are fully reabsorbed
urea is left in filtrate
water reabsorption is variable
active transport covers glucose,amino acids and proteins, vitamins and hormones.
many mitochondria supply the atp needed
sodium ions are actively reabsorbed
```
69
loop of henle {1}
At the base of the ascending tubule, sodium and chloride ions diffuse out of the tubule into the tissue fluid; this reduces the water potential of the surrounding tissue.
70
loop of henle {2]
As fluid moves down the descending limb the water potential inside the tubule becomes lower.
71
loop of henle {3}
As the fluid ascends up the ascending limb towards the cortex the water potential inside the tubule increases.
72
loop of henle {4}
Higher up the tubule sodium and chloride ions are actively transported out into the surrounding tissue fluid. This reduces the water potential of the surrounding tissue.
73
loop of henle {5}
The wall near the top of the ascending limb is impermeable to water, so water can’t leave the tubule. This means that the fluid in the ascending limb loses salts but not water.
74
loop of henle {6}
A consequence of the movement of salts from the ascending limb is that water moves out of the descending limb by osmosis into the surrounding tissue fluid where the water potential has become lower.
75
loop of henle {7}
sodium and chloride ions diffuse into the descending limb from the surrounding tissue, as the concentration
of these ions is higher in the tissue than in the tubule, which decreases the water potential in the tubule.
76
distil convoluted tube
secretes waste chemicals such as creatinine into filtrate
pumps ions to control blood pH
helps control blood volume and conc of urine
77
collecting duct
collects urine from the nephrons and moves it into the renal pelvis and ureters
78
Osmoregulation
is the control of water and salt levels in the body which prevents problems with osmosis.
79
The Role Of Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH)
causes channels to open in the collecting duct which allows water to pass through. Medulla has low water potential water will leave filtrate y osmosi. producing small quantities of urine.
80
negative feedback
if conc of blood changes amount of adh released changes to maintain dynamic equilibrium. nervous stimulations from the hypothalamus controls amount of adh released by the pituitary.
81
osmoregulation {1}
As blood flows through the hypothalamus in the brain, osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus monitor the
water potential of the blood.
82
osmoregulation {2}
f the water potential in the blood is low, then the osmoreceptor cells lose water by osmosis and they
shrink.
83
osmoregulation {3}
This stimulates neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus to produce ADH. ADH is made in the cell body of
these special neurons.
84
osmoregulation {4}
ADH flows down the axon of the neurosecretory cell to the terminal bulb in the posterior pituitary gland,
where it is stored until it is needed.
85
osmoregulation {5}
When the neurosecretory cells are stimulated, they send action potentials down their axons and the ADH is
released into the blood capillaries running through the posterior pituitary gland
86
osmoregulation {6}
ADH is transported around the body and acts on the cells in the collecting ducts
87
osmoregulation {7}
When the water potential rises, the osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect this change, and less ADH
is produced.
88
osmoregulation {8}
ADH has a half-life of about 20 minutes, so ADH present in the blood is broken down and the collecting
ducts will not be stimulated any further.
89
Blood Pressure And The Role Of The Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone Mechanism
```
decrease in blood pressure
juxtaglomerular cells of the kidney
increase renin
angiotensinogen
increased angiotensin I
increased angiotensin II
adrenal cortex
increased aldosterone
in kidneys increased na= and water reabsorption and increased secretion of k= and h= in urine
increased volume of blood
blood pressure increases until it returns to normal
```
90
Kidney Involved In Water, Electrolyte And Acid Base Balances
fluids have to be between pH 7.35 and 7.45. otherwise proteins, enzymes are denatured.
kidneys respond slowly to imbalance, but if tissues is to acidic hydrogen ions are absorbed into tubular fluid and bicarbonate ions are excreted. tissue is more alkaline hydrogen ions are excreted and bicarbonate ions are absorbed
91
transplantation
clean and balance blood and recipient can lead normal life. immune system detects the difference and may reject the new kidney . immunosuppressants drugs are used to prevent rejection.
92
Structure Of The Cell Surface Membrane
contains cell, controls movement of substances in and out of the cell, maintains the osmotic balance of the internal environment and allows the cell to be recognised.
93
The Fluid Mosaic Model
used to describe the arrangement biological membranes.
94
layers of fluid mosaic model
Fluid mosaic membranes
consist of
The phospholipid bilayer, which forms the basic
structure.
Protein molecules, which are present within the
phospholipid bilayer.
Extrinsic proteins, which are embedded on the surfaces
of the membrane.
Intrinsic proteins, which completely span the bilayer.
95
Active Transport,
Carrier proteins in the membrane can act as pumps to
carry large and charged molecules across the membrane.
The shapes of the proteins are complementary to the
molecules they carry, which they transport one way across
the membrane. As a molecule moves through the protein,
its shape changes. This means that as a molecule exits
it cannot enter again, as the protein shape is no longer
complementary. These protein pumps use metabolic
energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
to move molecules across the membrane and they
can carry molecules in the opposite direction to theconcentration gradient from a low concentration
to a high concentration. This process of active transport
is much faster than diffusion.
96
Active Transport,
Carrier proteins in the membrane can act as pumps to
carry large and charged molecules across the membrane. The shapes of the proteins are complementary to the molecules they carry, which they transport one way across the membrane. As a molecule moves through the protein, its shape changes. This means that as a molecule exits
it cannot enter again, as the protein shape is no longer
complementary. These protein pumps use metabolic
energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
to move molecules across the membrane and they
can carry molecules in the opposite direction to the concentration gradient from a low concentration
to a high concentration. This process of active transport is much faster than diffusion.
97
Passive Transport By Diffusion,
movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration
down a concentration gradient.
known as a passive process as the molecules
only rely on their kinetic energy and a concentration
gradient for movement, they do not use energy from
the cell.
98
Facilitated Diffusion,
Large molecules, such as glucose, and small charged
particles, such as sodium ions, are not able to pass
through the phospholipid bilayer. They need help to cross the membrane. This is known as facilitated diffusion. There are two types of proteins present in the membrane that facilitate diffusion.
▸▸ Channel proteins form pores in the membrane which are shaped to allow particular molecules/ions, for example sodium and calcium ions, to pass through.
Many are ‘gated’, which means they can be open and
closed.
▸▸ Carrier proteins are shaped for a specific molecule, for example glucose or amino acids. When the molecule binds to the protein, the protein changes shape to allow the molecule to pass across the membrane.
99
Osmosis
the movement of water molecules from a region of high water potential to a region of low water potential, down a water potential gradient across a partially permeable membrane
higher concentration of water molecules they will exert a higher pressure and therefore have a higher water potential.
until the concentration of water molecules is even either side of the membrane, water potential is the same on both sides.
100
Processes Of Endocytosis, Exocytosis For Large Molecules
Sometimes large quantities of materials need to be moved into cells, by endocytosis, or out, by exocytosis. Bulk transport requires energy in the form of ATP. The energy is used to move the membrane around to form and move vesicles around the cell. Vesicles are used to carry the bulk material, for example insulin, to be transported and they easily fuse with membranes and can separate from membranes by ‘pinching off’.
101
How Surface Area To Volume Ratio Affects Transport Of Molecules In Living Organisms
The larger the surface area to volume ratio, the more
effective transport is. Single celled organisms have a large surface area compared to their volume and they can rely on diffusion alone to meet their needs. Larger multi celled organisms cannot meet their nutrient need by diffusion alone, hence the need for transport systems and specialised surface areas where there is a large surface for diffusion to take place
