Unit 5 (Topics 1-17) Flashcards
1
Q
What is a common resource?
A
Non-excludable and rival, meaning anyone can take/use them and once one is taken, there is one less for everyone else to take. They are very easy to be taken advantage of and depleted. ex. trees, fish, oil, crabs, elephant tusks
2
Q
How do humans effect common resources?
A
Humans use common resources at rates which exceed the carrying capacity, but also at rates at which they can hardly replenish the numbers of the previous population. This harms their population as well as the ecosystems and biodiversity around them.
3
Q
Solutions to Tragedy of the Commons:
A
- Command and Control: Government regulations to limit human use.
- Cultural Norms: Society developing a moral obligation against using too much of a resource.
- Creating Property Rights: Creating boundaries and rights to resources. Can incentivize positive behavior.
4
Q
What is an IQR?
A
Used in New Zealand; controls the total tonnage of catches one can have in the year; can be bought or sold.
5
Q
Which part of the fishing experiment demonstrated the tragedy of the commons? Why?
A
Part one; This is because we had no control/ownership over any of the fish in the lake. In part one, especially because we could not communicate, it was a free for all to grab as many fish as you could before someone stole them all. This showed us a core principle of the “tragedy of the commons”: when a resource is not owned by a specific person, it can be easily depleted and overused.
6
Q
What is the ideal way to manage a common resource?
A
The ideal way to manage the lake is to take enough to satisfy your family, and a small portion more to sell. There should always be a way in which the number of fish you take is regulated. The regulation of resources can help prevent exceeding the resource’s carrying capacity.
7
Q
What is the tragedy of the commons?
A
Resources which are not owned and not regulated. Being unregulated, these resources are easily taken advantage of and can become severely depleted or gone forever if people over consume them (typically exceeding the carrying capacity).
8
Q
What is clear-cutting?
A
When we cut all of the trees in an area down all at one time.
9
Q
The effects of clear-cutting:
A
Habitat- Provisional - Forests provide habitats for many animals and plants; biodiversity.
Soil formation and Retention- Regulating- increases soil erosion, desertification, and the evaporation of water from the soil. It decreases water infiltration in the soil and the rate at which soil forms.
Moderating climate- Regulating- release carbon dioxide; leading to global warming.
Air and water pollution- Regulating- Forests are a sink for carbon. By burning down trees in deforestation, this carbon is released into the atmosphere; leads to ocean acidification. Increased albedo (reflectivity of the Earth’s surface)- Regulating- Burning trees in clearcutting forests creates exposed land. This land has less shade from trees, which increases the surface reflectivity in an area.
10
Q
How does clear-cutting effect biogeochemical cycles?
A
Biogeochemical cycles- Regulating- Each of the biogeochemical cycles can be hurt by clearcutting, creating an increase of carbon. This affects the balance of each cycle.
1. Hydrological- When increased carbon enters the atmosphere, it cycles through the atmosphere and into the ocean. This causes ocean acidification.
2. Carbon- The increased carbon that is released from burning forests creates an influx of carbon in the atmosphere. Along with ocean acidification, most of the increased atmospheric carbon dioxide aids in global warming. Carbon particles, like ash, can create smog.
3. Nitrogen- When clearcutting happens, the soil’s ability to retain nutrients decreases. This means that the soil will cycle nitrogen into the soil at a slower rate than usual, making it hard for plants to intake more nitrogen. This decreases the amount of nitrogen being cycled through the ecosystem.
4. Phosphorus- When deforestation occurs, it can affect the soil composition, leading to increased erosion. This means that phosphorus may cycle through the lithosphere faster, but it also means that there will be less phosphorus in the soil for plants to take in, which affects the amount of phosphorus available for animals.
11
Q
Economic benefits of forests:
A
- Timber and paper
- Grazing for livestock
- Ecotourism and aesthetics
- Impact on nearby real estate values
- Agricultural land for shade tolerant plants
- Sources of medicine
- Land for other uses
12
Q
How does clear cutting effect the amount of algae and dissolved oxygen levels of nearby water?
A
When clear-cutting results in burning forests which increases the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, this carbon is cycled into water sources. This creates an influx of carbon dioxide in the water. Since carbon dioxide is used in photosynthesis, the levels of algae increase. This can create algal blooms. They block the sunlight that the aquatic plants need for photosynthesis, and they lead to lower dissolved oxygen levels.
13
Q
What is the Clean Water Act?
A
The Clean Water Act (1948) was created to regulate pollution runoff into major US water sources. The act makes it illegal to discharge pollutants into areas where it can runoff into water. This act also controls sewage and wastewater in the industry of factories and public buildings. They control the regulation of pollutant runoff into surface waterways.
14
Q
Facts about the Amazon Rainforest:
A
1/5 of the forest is gone; 3/5 is used for cattle ranching
15
Q
What is a forest biome?
A
Has a large density of trees.
ex. boreal forest, tropical rainforests, temperate deciduous forests, temperate rainforests, and tropical dry forests.
16
Q
What percent of the earth are forests?
A
31%
17
Q
How much carbon do the world’s forests store?
A
296 billion metric tons
18
Q
Four biggest reasons for clear-cutting:
A
- agriculture, mining, and ranching
- timber harvesting
- slash and burn agriculture
- wildfires
19
Q
What is primary forest?
A
Natural forests, untouched by people.
20
Q
What is secondary forest?
A
Forests grown after clear-cutting, when they are regrowth
21
Q
Where is clear-cutting most prominent?
A
Indonesia, Africa,
and Central and South
America. Specifically, Brazil and developing nations
22
Q
Solutions to deforestation:
A
- Conservation concessions- give money to countries who are growing trees instead of cutting
- Debt-for-nature swaps- agreements to pay off a
developing country’s debt in exchange for preserving
forests - Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and
Forest Degradation (R E D D+)- program to reduce carbon emissions
23
Q
What is MSY?
A
Maximum Sustainable Yield; allowing them to
achieve the greatest
amount of resource
extraction without
depleting the resource; uses different factors to determine and carrying capacity.
24
Q
How much of the US forest is cut down?
A
about 2%
25
What is uneven aged tree growth?
create a mix of ages (and species), which creates greater structural diversity and more
habitats, and are generally more similar to what a national
forest would look like
26
What are other ways to clear cut?
The seed-tree approach leaves some seed-producing
trees to reseed the harvested area.
The shelterwood approach leaves some mature trees
behind to shelter growing seedlings.
Selection systems maintain uneven-aged stands by
removing only some trees. most expensive and dangerous
27
What is the National Forest
Management Act?
The National Forest
Management Act (1976) is required by the Forest Service to
draw up renewable resource management plans for each national forest
28
Are forest fires good for the environment?
prescribed burns can be good to clear out areas, but human started fires can release to much carbon into the atmosphere
29
What is the Green Revolution?
Describes a time when agricultural technology transformed and increased. It began in 1943, when Norman Borlaug went to Mexico to improve biotechnology and techniques in agriculture; the population was growing exponentially, while agriculture was growing at a linear rate
30
Changes in the Green Revolution were:
Genetically modified crops were implemented; farmers could plant crops they knew would survive and thrive. Before this, many farmers used trial and error.
Mechanization like tractors and plows increased the rate at which farmers could plant crops. Farmers used to plant by hand, requiring more manpower and more time.
Monoculture allowed for one crop to be mass planted in an area. This increased the yield of crops farmers were getting.
Pesticides killed the pests that would otherwise eat some of the yield of crops. This meant that more of the crops were surviving to adulthood to be harvested without being eaten by pests.
Irrigation systems were implemented, and they later developed into sprinkler systems, which allowed for farmers to easily water their crops, and they were able to water more at one time; able to also allow countries with drier soil to farm as well.
31
What were the benefits of the Green Revolution?
The Green Revolution helped underdeveloped countries out of starvation with the techniques and technology gained in this period. As the people from these countries gained more money, they were able to get more technology to help the agriculture industry grow. The Green Revolution made the agricultural industry easier, more efficient, and reliable.
32
What are the drawbacks of the Green Revolution?
GMOs, pesticides, and irrigation systems; Monoculture farming also increases soil erosion and decreases nutrients in the soil; Machinery increases carbon emissions
33
What are GMOs?
(est. 1943 in Mexico) Organisms that are modified at the genetic level have a high rate of tolerance to their surrounding environment. The crops that are GMOs have high nutrient tolerance, are pest resistant, and produce a sturdier and greater yield.
34
What are the benefits of GMOs?
pesticide resistant, made to have a durable stem, modified to produce a bigger yield, and good for the economies
35
What are the drawbacks of GMOs?
use of pesticides, fertilizers, and irrigation; runoff of chemical fertilizer from the irrigation systems can contaminate waterways. This has led to sickness and even cases of birth defects
36
What is arable soil?
suitable for crops
37
What does overuse do to soil?
Overuse and degradation of soil by some farming practices can cause soil to become unsuitable for growing crops/food.
38
What is the purpose of tilling? Benefits? Drawbacks?
prepares soil to plant seeds, aerates it and returns the nutrients; leads to erosion, water evaporation, increased runoff and eutrophication, increased need for fertilizers, increases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
39
Where does slash and burn agriculture happen?
Tropical Rainforest with low nutrient content
(developing countries)
Africa, Indonesia, Central America, South America (Brazil)
40
What is slash and burn agriculture? Drawbacks?
cutting down all of the trees, and then burning the rest; very unsustainable: nutrients are quickly depleted within a couple of years. Farmers then move on to new areas and repeat the process; increased carbon, pollutants, and erosion
41
What is intensive agriculture?
growing crops by large commercial operations which produce one or two types of high yield crops (monocropping) reduces genetic diversity
42
What is irrigation?
Irrigation is the artificial application of water to land to assist in the production of crops. It is the largest human use of freshwater. It also helps us bring water to places, and grow crops where they might not normally grow because of that area lacking water.
43
What is Furrow irrigation?
The oldest technique of irrigation. It is when trenches are dug between the rows of crops. These trenches are filled with water, so that it can seep into soil and into the roots.
It is inexpensive. It also flushes soils of dissolved salts that plants do not need.
About ⅓ of the water used in this method is lost to evaporation.
44
What is Spray irrigation?
When spray nozzles (sprinklers) are placed around a field, water is pumped through them using pressure and energy. They spray the water evenly across the field at gradual periods throughout the day.
It is more efficient than furrow and flood irrigation, and has less water loss due to runoff and evaporation. The rate of water flow can be easily controlled by farmers. Farmers can also use this system for distributing pesticides/fertilizer easier.
They are more expensive, and they require energy to run. The nozzles can become clogged, causing this system to be a bit high maintenance.
45
What is Flood irrigation?
It is when a person floods a field with water, and then lets the water sink in evenly across the field.
It is relatively inexpensive compared to other methods. The excess runoff can be reused to increase sustainability.
About 20% of the water is lost to evaporation and runoff, and it can cause severe water logging. The land usually has to be very level to ensure even distribution, which can take lots of time.
46
What is Drip irrigation?
Hoses with small holes are placed beneath or on the surface of soil. They have water pumped through them that releases small amounts of water into the soil to plant roots.
This is the most effective method of irrigation. It reduced weed growth, and it only attributes about 5% water loss to evaporation and runoff. It can be used in irregular shaped fields, and fields that are not fully leveled.
It is very expensive. Insects may chew on the tubes and cause damage. The tubes may also become clogged with soil or minerals from the water. Farmers have to be careful when using equipment near the tubes because they are easily breakable.
47
What percentage of freshwater is used in agriculture?
70%
48
What is waterlogging?
this occurs when too much water is left in the soil, which stifles plants ability to absorb oxygen through their roots. It also raises the water table. This can be an effect of flood irrigation.
49
What is salinization?
this occurs when salts in the soil do not get carried away or evaporate with the water, leaving it in the soil. This leads to high salt contents in the soil. Salinization causes the soil to become toxic to plants. This could be an effect of flood and furrow irrigation.
50
What is the largest aquifer in the US?
Ogallala; in Nebraska, Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Wyoming, and Texas. It mainly takes up all of Nebraska
51
Pros of Pesticides:
They are some of our best defenses against agricultural disasters.
They rid plants of pests.
By ridding plants of pests, monoculture farming is made easier and more efficient. This helps feed our growing population.
Pesticides can be the cure against insect borne disease carriers, like mosquitoes.
52
Cons of Pesticides:
They lead to rapid pesticide evolution, creating “super resistant” species of insects that are able to live through many types of pesticides.
Some pesticides were super harmful to humans when they consumed the residue from eating the plants. For example, Arsenic, Lead, and DDT were sprayed on plants, all of which caused health problems.
They can be harmful to the environment, and linger in the atmosphere (like DDT).
They can rid the area of needed insects and animals, like bees and birds, which can be influential in the growing season of some plants.
They can pollute soil and water sources because of runoff in watersheds.
53
What are some alternatives to pesticides?
Burn the same crops after the harvest to rid the fields of pests, and they would use other insects to fight off unwanted pests.
Natural plant and fungal chemicals that have similar properties to pesticides
Using other insects as “crop bodyguards”
Using drones to shoot out more targeted sprays of pesticides on plants in a controlled and tracked way
54
Who manufactures GMOs?
BASF, Baylor, DuPont, Dow Chemical Company, Monsanto (the biggest), and Syngenta
55
What is Long Line fishing?
A boat with a long line that has attached hooks. These hooks have bait, which the fish try to eat and get trapped. They are evenly spaced down the line with buoys, and are dragged behind the boat. They can be up to 28 miles long.
The hooks can be set at different depths, widening the variety of fish caught. It is very efficient and produces a high yield with one pass.
If unregulated, overfishing can be approached very quickly. Also, many non-target organisms can try to eat the bait as well, like turtles, other fish species, and birds.
56
What is Drift Net/Gill Net fishing?
A long net that is dragged through the water behind a boat. It has a line with buoys on each side. As it is pulled through the water, it traps the fish’s fins in the nets.
It can be set at different depths. It is very efficient.
It can quickly lead to over fishing. It also can trap non-target species in the net and they can die as well.
57
What is Purse Seine fishing?
A massive drawstring net that is dropped below a boat. A large school of fish has to be found, then the drawstring is carefully closed on the bottom and the top. This traps a giant pocket of fish in the net.
The net can be tailored to different types of fish. It is very efficient.
It can lead to non-target species entering the area and dying. It involves taking a majority of a whole school of fish. This can very quickly become over fishing, and if targeted at one species in particular, it can lead to an extinction.
58
What is Trawling?
A cone shaped net that is dragged behind a boat. It is usually dragged along the middle or bottom of the water.
It is efficient. The net can be set where the fish are.
If trawled along the bottom, aquatic ecosystems like kelp or coral reefs can be wiped away. It can also pick up non-target organisms, and lead to over fishing.
59
What is Sonar?
A resource used to help find fish in water. It uses sound waves to see where fish are. This gives fishermen a “map” of where they should fish.
Makes finding fish easy and efficient for fishermen. This helps reduce fuel usage, which lessens fossil fuels in the atmosphere. It also creates profits, and increases the amount of fish caught. This provides more food.
Helps to accelerate over fishing. The sonar can disrupt the natural navigation systems in animals such as whales.
60
What is bycatch?
Bycatch is the non-target species that is caught when fishing
61
What happens to bycatch?
It is usually either processed with the other species or dumped over the side (even if it is dead).
62
What are solutions to over fishing?
Catch limits based on maximum sustainable yield
Limit age/size of fish caught
Modify techniques to minimize bycatch
Laws and treaties to protect critical species
63
What is CITES?
CITES stands for the legislation called: The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna. This treaty limits and regulates the trade and harvest of species
64
What is mining?
the systematic removal of rock, soil, or other materials for the purpose of extracting minerals for economic profit. This definition can also be expanded to mining other materials in the ground, like fossil fuels and water.
65
What is Refining?
the act of breaking down mined material to take out all of the impurities and undesired minerals and separate that from the intended resource.
66
What is Ore?
the common state most metals are found in when in nature; a mineral or a group of minerals
67
What is Overburden?
the rock or soil layer that is removed in order to start mining. It is considered to be anything separating the wanted material from being mined. They are unlike tailings in that they tend to not contain toxic components.
68
What are Spoils?
the unwanted waste that is produced when a material is removed from the earth's surface by mining, dredging, quarrying, and excavation. This is similar to overburden
69
What are Tailings?
portions of ore left over from mining that can pollute the surrounding area’s environment; including animals, water, soil, plants, and more.
70
What are Surface Impoundments?
large reservoirs where tailings can be stored. Spills can occur if the walls are disturbed, and this can cause damage to aquatic ecosystems and water sources. They can contribute to small-scale leaching because they are hard to maintain and contain.
71
What are some metals extracted from ores?
Copper, Gold, Iron, Aluminum , Silver
72
What are the negative effects of mining iron, aluminum, and coltan
Iron ore mining causes deforestation and habitat disruption through open-pit mining. The blast furnace method also leads to air pollution and the release of excess carbon dioxide. This is because of the coke (coal) being burned.
Aluminum is made by removing red mud from the ore. Red mud can be toxic, and it can runoff into the surrounding watershed if not contained and managed properly. This can pollute the water, affecting aquatic ecosystems and fresh drinking water. The Hall–Héroult process also releases excess greenhouse gas emissions.
Coltan mining has severely affected the environment in the Congo. Miners have destroyed forested land in search of Coltan which has led to the relocation of many people and animals. This mining process has affected the gorillas who live in that area, reducing their population by half.
73
What is Surface/Strip Mining?
Surface mining and strip mining involves removing large sections of land (overburden) to expose the minerals underneath. After the resource is depleted, it is filled back up with the overburden.
This removes vegetation from the area, and it increases erosion. Strip mining also causes acid mine drainage because it exposes sulfuric material.
ex. sand, stone, gravel, coal, copper, aluminum, and phosphate
74
What is Subsurface mining?
Deep shafts are made in the ground, and tunnels are dug or blasted out.
Workers are constantly at risk of explosions, inhalation of dust and toxic chemicals, and collapsing shafts. When old mines collapse, they can create sinkholes.
ex. silver, gold, lead
75
What is Open Pit mining?
A large, terraced hole is excavated from the ground. Using conveyor belts, the ore is brought to the surface.
Holes are very deep, and tend not to be filled, so they can become filled with water. This water can become toxic because of sulfuric acid and other metal leaching into the water. By mining the deep pits, radioactive material can also be released.
ex. silver, gold, copper
76
What is Mountaintop Removal?
The mountain’s forests and topsoil are removed, then the mountain top is blasted off to reveal the underground seams of minerals.
A step of the process causes deforestation and the removal of the topsoil. It requires the land to undergo stages of primary succession. On mountains with steep slopes, erosion, mudslides, landslides, and flooding increases. The destruction of the forests can also result in a lack of biodiversity.
ex. coal
77
What is acid mine drainage?
When mining exposes sediments of sulfide minerals, they can leach into water sources. They combine with the oxygen in the water to create sulfuric acid. The water becomes polluted and turns a rusty red color. The water becomes super acidic, and most of the aquatic ecosystem can die off. This water is not safe to drink or be near. Places are working to reduce this by having facilities use oxidizers such as hydrogen peroxide to precipitate dissolved iron from the water. This makes the pH increase and level out to normal.
78
What is Cyanide Heap Leaching?
Some ores are mined by being sprayed with a cyanide solution, like gold. This can create ponds of cyanide solutions that can leach into soil and bodies of water. The water then becomes toxic and polluted. This leads to a huge die back of aquatic organisms.
79
What is it called when you fix the land after mining?
Reclaiming; The first step in this process is to survey the mined land, mainly to see what needs to be brought to revegetate the land. The site is prepared, the soil is stabilized, and seeds are planted. Native plants are slowly introduced back into the area in the hopes that they will decrease erosion and bring biodiversity back to the area by creating habitats. This land is then closely monitored, and is continually being restored to try and bring it to its original state.
Shade tolerant trees are the indicator that it is fully grown.
80
What problems do abandoned mines cause?
Leaching of poisonous gasses
Sinkholes
Acid mine drainage
Leaching of toxic stagnant water
Dangerously unexpected explosions
Can catch on fire
Chemicals leaching into the soil
81
What is a mineral?
naturally occurring solid chemical element or inorganic compound with a crystal structure, a specific chemical composition, and distinct physical properties
82
What is the General Mining Act of 1872?
allows any U.S. citizen or any company with permission to do business in the United States to stake a claim on any plot of public land open to mining
83
What is urbanization?
Urbanization is the phenomenon that describes the action of people leaving rural areas and moving to cities. This may be prompted by social and economic factors, like better access to jobs and education.
84
Why go to urban places?
Job opportunities
More medical centers
More/better education
85
What percent of the world's population lives in an urban setting?
50%
86
How can urbanization cause salt water intrusion and freshwater depletion?
The aquifers in urban areas are more likely to be used and depleted. This is because they do not allow the aquifer time to refill. If the aquifer is close to a body of salt water, the salt water can start to creep up the aquifer and mix with the freshwater. This contaminates the freshwater source, making it unusable.
87
What are some drawbacks of urbanization?
increased fossil fuel use, landfill use, and impervious surfaces, urban runoff, noise pollution
88
What is urban sprawl?
An urban sprawl is when urban areas start to “sprawl”/expand outward, and the land becomes more available and affordable. This can create “suburbs”.
89
What are the reasons for urban sprawl?
It started primarily because of the federal housing loans that guaranteed the stimulated development of the suburbs. This led to developers wanting to develop on this land, and being given the loans and resources to do so.
The government offered loans to developers who wanted to build housing in the suburbs. This led to more housing being available to people. When gas prices are cheap, more people are willing to travel longer distances to work, school, etc. In the US especially, we have taken lots of time to build freeways and highways. This can encourage people to drive longer distances to work. These factors can encourage people to live outside the city where they have employment, go to school, and more.
We also have tax laws in the US that encourage people to own houses. When a house is bought, you can write-off property taxes on your income tax.
90
What is a megalopolis?
A megalopolis is when multiple urban sprawls grow and merge. A famous megalopolis in the US is the Boswash. The Bowash is located on the east coast. It runs from Boston, MA, all the way to Washington DC. It contains cities like DC, Boston, Hartford, Baltimore, Harrisburg, Allentown, Philadelphia, Newark, New York, Providence, and Springfield.
91
What are solutions to help the effect of urbanization?
Alternative Transportation
Regulating Urban Planning
Taxing the Land
Green roofs
92
What is an ecological footprint, and how is it measured?
Ecological Footprint is a measure of how many resources a person uses, expressed in an area of land.
1. Carbon footprint
2. Built up land
3. Forest
4. Cropland and Pasture
5. Fisheries
93
What can demographic transition tell us about footprints?
In the demographic transition model, as a country progresses through the different stages their ecological footprint increases. So, when comparing the ecological footprints of different countries we can tell which country may be further along in demographic transition than another. Countries in the post industrial stage tend to have the highest footprints, while countries in the pre industrialized stage tend to have the lowest.
94
What is sustainability?
Sustainability is the ability to use and maintain a resource indefinitely or for future generations.
95
When the input is more than the output?
wasteful
96
When the output is more then the input?
unsustainable
97
How do you calculate MSY?
it is 50% of carrying capacity
98
What are solutions to regulate MSY?
Research and Planning - Understanding the reproductive abilities and age of a resource, as well as, their competition, what resources they consume, and when they reproduce.
Setting Quotas
Requiring Permits - This limits the amount of access people have to the resources, as well as being able to regulate who does have access to it.
Focusing on the Long Term - Focusing on the future generations is important in sustainability. It allows us to be conscious about how what we are doing now can affect us later.
Reforesting
Leaving a place better than you found it.
99
What are CAFOs?
confined animal feeding operations (C A F O s)- Feedlots are huge pens designed to provide high-energy feed to animals living in high densities; produce more intensive pollution due to the release of highly concentrated waste.
Nutrient pollution: nitrogen and phosphorus
Contains bacterial and viral pathogens
Hormones and antibiotics may be excreted in waste, as well.
100
What is aquaculture?
Rearing fish and marine plants for human consumption (huge in China)
101
What is IPM?
Integrated Pest Management: biocontrol, chemical pesticides, habitat alteration, crop rotation, transgenic crops, alternative tillage methods, and mechanical pest removal.
102
What is hydroponics?
the practice of growing plants in water-based nutrient-rich solutions instead of soil.
103
What is Contour Plowing?
When one follows the natural topography leaving soil in place; reduces erosion.
