Unit 6

Question 1

Learning

Answer 1

The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

Question 2

Habituation

Answer 2

An organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it.

Question 3

Associative learning

Answer 3

Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

Question 4

Stimulus

Answer 4

Any event or situation that evokes a response.

Question 5

Cognitive learning

Answer 5

The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.

Question 6

Classical conditioning

Answer 6

A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

Question 7

Behaviorism

Answer 7

The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Question 8

Neutral stimulus (NS)

Answer 8

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

Question 9

Unconditioned response (UR)

Answer 9

In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).

Question 10

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

Answer 10

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically-triggers a response (UR).

Question 11

Conditioned response (CR)

Answer 11

In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

Question 12

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Answer 12

In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

Question 13

Acquisition

Answer 13

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Question 14

Higher-order conditioning

Answer 14

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning).

Question 15

Extinction

Answer 15

The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditional stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

Question 16

Spontaneous recovery

Answer 16

The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

Question 17

Generalization

Answer 17

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Question 18

Discrimination

Answer 18

In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

Question 19

Operant conditioning

Answer 19

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

Question 20

Law of effect

Answer 20

Thorndike’s principal that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

Question 21

Operant chamber

Answer 21

In operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

Question 22

Reinforcement

Answer 22

In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Question 23

Shaping

Answer 23

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Question 24

Discriminative stimulus

Answer 24

In operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).

Question 25

Positive reinforcement

Answer 25

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Question 26

Negative reinforcement

Answer 26

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

Question 27

Primary reinforcer

Answer 27

An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

Question 28

Conditioned reinforcer

Answer 28

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as secondary reinforcer.

Question 29

Reinforcement schedule

Answer 29

A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

Question 30

Continuous reinforcement

Answer 30

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

Question 31

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement

Answer 31

Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

Question 32

Fixed-ratio schedule

Answer 32

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

Question 33

Variable-ratio schedule

Answer 33

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

Question 34

Fixed-interval schedule

Answer 34

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Question 35

Variable-interval schedule

Answer 35

In operant condition, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

Question 36

Punishment

Answer 36

An event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.

Question 37

Biofeedback

Answer 37

A system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension.

Question 38

Respondent behavior

Answer 38

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

Question 39

Operant behavior

Answer 39

Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.

Question 40

Cognitive map

Answer 40

A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

Question 41

Latent learning

Answer 41

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Question 42

Insight

Answer 42

A sudden realization of a problem’s solution.

Question 43

Intrinsic motivation

Answer 43

A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

Question 44

Extrinsic motivation

Answer 44

A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

Question 45

Coping

Answer 45

Alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods.

Question 46

Problem-focused coping

Answer 46

Attempting to alleviate stress directly-by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

Question 47

Emotion-focused coping

Answer 47

Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction.

Question 48

Learned helplessness

Answer 48

The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

Question 49

External locus of control

Answer 49

The perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate.

Question 50

Internal locus of control

Answer 50

The perception that you control your own fate.

Question 51

Self-control

Answer 51

The ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards.

Question 52

Observational learning

Answer 52

Learning by observing others. Also called social learning.

Question 53

Modeling

Answer 53

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

Question 54

Mirror neurons

Answer 54

Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy.

Question 55

Prosocial behavior

Answer 55

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.