unit 6 - biology lecture Flashcards
(158 cards)
1
Q
What is meant by the term genetically modified?
A
Genetically modified refers to organisms whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques.
2
Q
How does the World Health Organization define a GMO?
A
The World Health Organization defines a GMO as an organism whose genetic material has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally.
3
Q
Define a Transgenic organism.
A
A Transgenic organism is one that contains a gene or genes which have been artificially inserted instead of the organism acquiring them through reproduction.
4
Q
Define a Cisgenic organism.
A
A Cisgenic organism is one that has been genetically modified using genes from the same or a closely related species.
5
Q
Define an Intragenic organism.
A
An Intragenic organism is one that has been genetically modified using genes from the same organism.
6
Q
Summarize the history of humans genetically modifying organisms.
A
Humans have been genetically modifying organisms for thousands of years through selective breeding and artificial selection.
7
Q
What is selective breeding (artificial selection)?
A
Selective breeding is the process by which humans breed plants and animals for particular genetic traits.
8
Q
When was the first GMO approved for human consumption made?
A
The first GMO approved for human consumption was made in 1994.
9
Q
What was the first GMO approved for human consumption called?
A
The first GMO approved for human consumption was called the Flavr Savr tomato.
10
Q
What global concerns are fostering the development of GMOs?
A
Global concerns include climate change, pest management, and human population growth.
11
Q
How can GMOs help humans while the climate is changing?
A
GMOs can be engineered to withstand extreme weather conditions and improve food security.
12
Q
How are GMOs used to manage pest species?
A
GMOs can produce naturally derived pesticides, reducing the need for chemical pesticide applications.
13
Q
How can GMOs help with the challenge of human population growth?
A
GMOs can increase crop yields and improve nutritional content to feed a growing population.
14
Q
List examples of genetically modified organisms.
A
Examples include Bt corn, Roundup Ready soybeans, Golden Rice, and genetically modified bacteria.
15
Q
How have bacteria been genetically modified to benefit people?
A
Bacteria have been modified to produce insulin, clean up oil spills, create biodegradable plastics, and produce biofuels.
16
Q
How have animals been genetically modified to benefit people?
A
Animals have been modified for disease resistance, faster growth rates, improved milk production, and organ donation.
17
Q
How have plants been genetically modified to benefit people?
A
Plants have been modified for pest resistance, herbicide tolerance, improved nutritional content, and longer shelf life.
18
Q
What are the basic characteristics of a plant?
A
The three basic characteristics of all plants are they are multicellular, eukaryotic, and photosynthetic.
19
Q
What are the five groups of plants discussed in class?
A
The five groups are Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms, Angiosperms, and Algae.
20
Q
What is a root and what does it do for the plant?
A
A root anchors the plant and absorbs water and nutrients from the soil.
21
Q
What is a stem and what does it do for the plant?
A
A stem supports the plant and transports nutrients and water between the roots and leaves.
22
Q
What is a leaf and what does it do for the plant?
A
A leaf is the main site of photosynthesis and gas exchange in the plant.
23
Q
What are the two types of vascular tissue discussed in class?
A
The two types are xylem, which transports water, and phloem, which transports nutrients.
24
Q
What is Alternation of Generations?
A
Alternation of Generations is the life cycle of plants involving both a sporophyte and a gametophyte stage.
25
What is a sporophyte stage?
The sporophyte stage is the diploid phase that produces spores through meiosis.
26
Which plants discussed in lecture are sporophyte dominant?
Ferns and flowering plants are examples of sporophyte dominant plants.
27
What is a gametophyte stage?
The gametophyte stage is the haploid phase that produces gametes through mitosis.
28
Which plants discussed in lecture are gametophyte dominant?
Mosses are examples of gametophyte dominant plants.
29
Differentiate between a Monocot and a Eudicot.
Monocots have one cotyledon, parallel leaf veins, and flower parts in multiples of three; Eudicots have two cotyledons, net-like leaf veins, and flower parts in multiples of four or five.
30
What is Photosynthesis?
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of glucose.
31
What are the inputs and outputs of Photosynthesis?
Inputs are carbon dioxide and water; outputs are glucose and oxygen.
32
What cells house most of a plant's chloroplasts?
Most chloroplasts are found in the mesophyll cells of leaves.
33
What structures of the chloroplast did we discuss in class?
The three structures are the thylakoid, stroma, and granum.
34
Describe what happens during the light-dependent reactions.
Light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes and convert light energy into chemical energy (ATP and NADPH).
35
Describe what happens during the Calvin cycle.
The Calvin cycle occurs in the stroma and uses ATP and NADPH to convert carbon dioxide into glucose.
36
Do plants only create carbohydrates?
No, plants can also produce proteins, lipids, and secondary metabolites, making them useful beyond food.
37
How can genetic modification improve crop yield?
Genetic modification can increase resistance to pests and diseases, thus reducing crop loss.
38
Can we genetically modify food to be more nutritious?
Yes, genetic modification can enhance the nutritional content of food, benefiting society.
39
What is the structure of DNA?
DNA has a double helix structure and is anti-parallel.
40
How many Nitrogenous Bases are present in DNA?
There are four nitrogenous bases in DNA: adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine.
41
How do nitrogenous bases attach to one another?
They attach through complementary base pairing, known as Chargaff's rule.
42
Where is the information in DNA stored?
The information in DNA is stored in the sequence of nitrogenous bases.
43
What is a gene?
A gene is a segment of DNA that codes for a specific protein.
44
What is a genome?
A genome is the complete set of genes or genetic material present in a cell or organism.
45
What is the study of the genome?
The study of the genome is known as genomics.
46
What is the Central Dogma of Biology?
The Central Dogma describes the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein.
47
What is Transcription?
Transcription is the process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA.
48
Where does Transcription occur?
Transcription occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
49
What is Translation?
Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from mRNA.
50
Where does Translation occur?
Translation occurs in the ribosomes of cells.
51
What is DNA sequencing?
DNA sequencing is the process of determining the exact sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule.
52
What is a DNA probe?
A DNA probe is a fragment of DNA used to detect the presence of complementary sequences in a sample.
53
What two methods are used to make a copy of a gene of interest?
The two methods are PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) and cloning.
54
What is a restriction enzyme?
A restriction enzyme is a protein that cuts DNA at specific sequences.
55
What does PCR stand for?
PCR stands for Polymerase Chain Reaction.
56
What are the three steps done during one cycle of PCR?
The three steps are denaturation (separating DNA strands), annealing (binding primers), and extension (synthesizing new DNA).
57
What is mutagenesis?
Mutagenesis is the process of inducing mutations in an organism's DNA.
58
What is CRISPR?
CRISPR is a gene-editing technology that allows for precise modifications to DNA.
59
How is Agrobacterium tumefaciens used to genetically modify plants?
Agrobacterium tumefaciens transfers genes into plant cells, similar to natural infection.
60
Describe how Particle bombardment works.
Particle bombardment involves shooting DNA-coated particles into plant cells using a gene gun.
61
What does RNAi stand for?
RNAi stands for RNA interference.
62
Describe the RNAi method for silencing genes.
RNAi uses small RNA molecules to inhibit gene expression by degrading mRNA.
63
What is horizontal gene transfer?
Horizontal gene transfer is the transfer of genetic material between organisms, which can lead to 'super weeds'.
64
Are there concerns regarding adverse human reactions relating to GMOs?
Yes, there are concerns about potential allergic reactions and the safety of unapproved GMOs.
65
What is the concern between GMOs that produce pesticides and 'Non-Pest' species?
There is concern that GMOs may affect non-target species, leading to ecological imbalances.
66
How are we genetically modifying organisms to help fight the spread of disease?
We are modifying organisms to produce vaccines or enhance resistance to pathogens.
67
How are genetically modified animals being used to help feed more people?
Genetically modified animals can be engineered for faster growth and better feed conversion.
68
List some genetic modifications we are actively doing to plants.
We are modifying plants for drought resistance, pest resistance, and enhanced nutritional content.
69
Can these GMO plants be used to combat Climate Change?
Yes, GMO plants can be designed to withstand climate extremes and improve carbon sequestration.
70
What is the definition of a GMO according to the World Health Organization (WHO)?
Organism(s) in which the genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination.
71
What is the difference between a transgenic organism and a cisgenic organism?
A transgenic organism has DNA that is across species, while a cisgenic organism modifies the DNA of the target organism without introducing foreign DNA.
72
What is selective breeding?
Humans identify natural variation in traits of a species and breed individuals with similar characteristics to produce offspring with the desired trait.
73
What was the first GMO approved for human consumption?
Flavr-savr tomato.
74
Why do scientists develop GMOs?
To address global challenges such as resource conservation, food supply, and pest management.
75
What is the role of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) in genetically modified crops?
Bt crops produce a toxin that kills insects but is not harmful to plants or humans.
76
Fill in the blank: The first organism to have its DNA directly manipulated in the lab is _______.
Escherichia coli.
77
What are some examples of genetically modified bacteria?
* Production of human insulin
* Production of vaccines
* Bioremediation of toxic chemicals
* Synthesis of organic chemicals
78
What are some applications of genetically modified animals?
* Models for human disease
* Biotechnology products
* Increased nutritional value
* Xenotransplantation
79
List some genetically modified plants currently available in the United States.
* Squash (1995): Disease resistance
* Cotton (1996): Insect resistance; herbicide tolerance
* Soybean (1995): Insect resistance; herbicide tolerance
* Corn (1996): Insect resistance; herbicide tolerance; drought tolerance
* Papaya (1997): Disease resistance
80
Which of the following traits can genetically modified plants provide? Select all that apply.
* Resistance to drought
* Resistance to commonly used herbicides
* Resistance to insect pest species
* Reduced spoilage
81
True or False: All living organisms are genetically modified in some way.
True.
82
What is the significance of the AquaAdvantage Salmon?
It was the first genetically modified animal approved for human consumption.
83
What are the challenges addressed by developing GMOs?
* Climate change
* Pest management
* Human population growth
84
What is the impact of climate change on ecosystems?
* Alters temperature
* Affects precipitation patterns
85
Fill in the blank: The process of controlling agricultural pests through genetic modification involves the use of _______ crops.
Bt.
86
What is the role of genetically modified bacteria in bioremediation?
They can break down toxic chemicals in the environment.
87
What are some traits currently under development for genetically modified crops?
* Disease resistance
* Insect resistance
* Drought tolerance
88
Genetically modified plants may be produced for which of the following reasons?
All of the above:
* To provide resistance to drought
* To provide resistance to commonly used herbicides
* To provide resistance to insect pest species
* To reduce spoilage
89
Which organisms are being genetically modified to produce biotechnology products such as vaccines?
Bacteria, Plants, Animals
90
What are the basic characteristics of a plant?
* Multicellular
* Eukaryotes
* Photosynthetic
91
What is the primary function of roots in plants?
* Anchors plant to the ground
* Transports water and nutrients
* Produces plant growth hormones
92
What is the function of xylem in plant physiology?
Transports water and dissolved ions upwards through the plant
93
What is the function of phloem in plants?
Transports organic compounds from photosynthesis throughout the plant
94
What defines gymnosperms?
First plants to evolve seeds
95
What is the difference between sporophyte and gametophyte in plant reproduction?
* Sporophyte: Spore-producing generation, diploid (2n)
* Gametophyte: Gamete-producing generation, haploid (1n)
96
What is the life cycle of a plant called?
Alternation of generations
97
What are the characteristics of monocots?
* Fibrous roots
* Parallel leaf veins
* Random vascular bundles in stem
* Floral components in multiples of threes
98
What are the characteristics of eudicots?
* Large taproot system
* Netlike leaf veins
* Vascular bundles in a ring in stem
* Floral components in multiples of fours or fives
99
Fill in the blank: The process by which plants manufacture their food is called _______.
Photosynthesis
100
What are the inputs for photosynthesis?
* Solar energy
* Carbon dioxide
* Water
101
What is the role of chlorophyll in photosynthesis?
Captures incoming energy of the sun
102
True or False: All reactions of photosynthesis require sunlight.
True
103
What is the output of photosynthesis?
* Oxygen
* Carbohydrates
104
What is one way genetic modification can improve fruit ripening?
Silencing the gene responsible for polyphenol oxidase (PPO) enzyme
105
How can genetic modification increase crop yield?
By making plants resistant to insect pests and herbicides
106
What is beta-carotene and why is it important?
A nutrient that is a precursor of vitamin A, important for human development
107
What is the purpose of genetically modifying plants?
To make them resistant to herbicides like glyphosate (RoundUp)
## Footnote
Glyphosate is widely used to control weed populations.
108
What nutrient does Golden Rice produce?
Beta-carotene
## Footnote
Beta-carotene is a precursor of vitamin A, essential for human development.
109
What two genes were added to rice to allow it to produce beta-carotene?
One from a daffodil and one from a soil bacterium
110
What is DNA?
The genetic material of every organism, responsible for storing information needed for life processes
## Footnote
DNA is involved in processing energy, maintaining internal environments, responding to stimuli, reproducing, and adapting.
111
What is the structure of DNA?
A double helix made of two complementary strands
## Footnote
Nucleotides in DNA include adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G).
112
What is complementary base pairing?
Adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T) and cytosine (C) pairs with guanine (G)
## Footnote
This pairing is crucial for the storage of genetic information.
113
What is a gene?
Information that produces a product, typically proteins or RNA molecules
114
What is gene expression?
The process of using genes to make proteins
## Footnote
It involves transcription and translation.
115
What is the role of enzymes?
To act as catalysts that accelerate chemical reactions
## Footnote
Enzymes have specific shapes that determine their interactions with substrates.
116
What is mutagenesis?
The intentional introduction of a change into the genetic material of a cell or organism
117
What is CRISPR technology used for?
To remove or insert nucleotides in a gene, altering its function
118
What is Agrobacterium tumefaciens?
A plant bacterial pathogen used as a vector to introduce genetic material into plants
119
What is particle bombardment?
A method of transforming plants by firing DNA-coated particles into plant tissue
120
What is RNA interference (RNAi)?
A process that silences existing genes using complementary RNA sequences
## Footnote
RNAi binds with target mRNA to produce double-stranded RNA, leading to degradation.
121
What is a potential risk of GMOs related to herbicide resistance?
Transfer of glyphosate resistance genes to weed species, creating 'super-weeds'
122
What are some public concerns regarding GMOs?
Potential negative health effects, such as allergic reactions
123
Fill in the blank: The process of genes being used to make proteins is called _______.
gene expression
124
True or False: The two strands of DNA are oriented in the same direction.
False
125
Select all that apply: Which methods can be used to make copies of a gene of interest?
* Polymerase chain reaction
* Restriction enzymes
* DNA cloning
126
What is the role of restriction enzymes in gene cloning?
To cut DNA at specific patterns of nucleotides for gene insertion
127
What are DNA probes used for?
To identify specific sequences of DNA
## Footnote
DNA probes can also be used in DNA microarrays.
128
What is glyphosate resistance associated with?
Glyphosate resistance is associated with transgenic crop species to weed species, creating a 'super-weed' that can no longer be controlled using herbicides.
129
What are some concerns regarding adverse human reactions to GMOs?
Concerns include the possibility of negative health effects, such as allergic reactions.
130
What specific example illustrates an allergic reaction to GMOs?
In 2000, a woman had an allergic reaction after eating taco shells containing the unapproved protein Cry9C.
131
What is the Bt endotoxin used for in genetically modified plants?
The Bt endotoxin is introduced in crop plants to control insect populations.
132
What are non-target species in the context of GMOs?
Non-target species refer to beneficial insect populations that may be harmed by genetically modified plants designed to control pest populations.
133
Which of the following statements is correct regarding GMOs?
a. negatively impacted non-target species
b. the ability to cause health problems in most individuals
c. resulted in gene transfer to weed species
134
What potential benefit do genetically modified fungi offer?
Research into genetically modified fungi might remove the threat of diseases such as malaria by eliminating mosquitoes.
135
What are scientists currently developing GM plants to achieve?
Scientists are developing plants that are heat and drought resistant and have higher nutritional content.
136
What is the ultimate goal of developing new GM plants?
The goal is to grow more food on less land using less water and fewer chemical insecticides.
137
What is AquaAdvantage Salmon?
AquaAdvantage Salmon is a transgenic salmon that contains genes from two other fish, allowing it to grow faster.
138
What needs of society are future genetically modified plants and animals being designed to meet?
* Prevention of disease
* Increased food supply
* Adaptation to the consequences of climate change
139
What are the main categories of land plants?
* Mosses
* Lycophytes
* Ferns
* Gymnosperms
* Angiosperms
140
What processes are involved in the life cycle of plants?
* Fertilization
* Meiosis
* Mitosis
141
Why are plants called producers?
Plants are called producers because they convert solar energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis.
142
What occurs during the light reactions of photosynthesis?
Solar energy, ADP plus P, and NADP plus are converted into NADPH and ATP while H2O is converted into O2.
143
What is the Calvin cycle's role in photosynthesis?
The Calvin cycle converts CO2 into carbohydrates while producing ADP plus P and NADP plus for the light reaction.
144
What is the relationship between a gene and a trait?
A gene is a segment of DNA that codes for a specific trait.
145
What processes involve the transformation of DNA into traits?
Transcription and translation are processes that involve converting DNA into traits via mRNA.
146
What is the structure of DNA?
Double-stranded helix composed of a coding strand and a template strand
## Footnote
The coding strand contains the genetic information, while the template strand is used for transcription.
147
What is the process of transcription?
The synthesis of mRNA from a DNA template in the nucleus
## Footnote
mRNA carries the genetic information needed for protein synthesis.
148
What is the role of ribosomes in protein synthesis?
Translation of mRNA to produce a polypeptide chain
## Footnote
Ribosomes read the mRNA codons and facilitate the assembly of amino acids into proteins.
149
What are codons?
Sequences of three nucleotides in mRNA that correspond to specific amino acids
## Footnote
Each codon specifies one amino acid during translation.
150
What occurs when a substrate binds to an enzyme's active site?
A reaction occurs, producing products and releasing the enzyme
## Footnote
The shape of the active site is complementary to the substrate.
151
What is the purpose of adding fluorescently labeled nucleotides during DNA replication?
To halt replication and produce different lengths of DNA sequences
## Footnote
This technique helps in analyzing DNA sequences.
152
Fill in the blank: The complementary sequence for the nucleotides A T C G is _____
T A G C
153
What do sticky ends refer to in DNA?
Unpaired nucleotides at the ends of DNA fragments after cutting by restriction enzymes
## Footnote
Sticky ends facilitate the ligation of DNA fragments.
154
What are the three steps of the PCR process?
* Denaturation at 95 degrees
* Annealing at 55 degrees
* Extension at 72 degrees
## Footnote
These steps are repeated in cycles to amplify DNA.
155
What is the function of guide RNA in CRISPR-Cas technology?
To bind to the target gene and direct the Cas9 enzyme to cleave it
## Footnote
This allows for gene editing by creating double-strand breaks.
156
How is a plant transformed using Agrobacterium?
Agrobacterium containing recombinant DNA infects plant cells
## Footnote
The new gene is integrated into the plant's chromosomes.
157
What is the future application of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in aquaculture?
Creation of transgenic wild Atlantic salmon using growth hormone genes
## Footnote
This involves inserting genes into fertilized fish eggs to enhance growth.
158
True or False: DNA polymerase works from the 5 prime end to the 3 prime end during DNA replication.
False
## Footnote
DNA polymerase synthesizes DNA by adding nucleotides in the 3 prime to 5 prime direction.
