Unit One Flashcards
Unit One Vocab. (153 cards)
1
Q
Psychology
A
Psychology is the science that studies behavior and the physiological and cognitive processes that underlie it and is the profession that applies the accumulated knowledge of this science to practical problems.
2
Q
Structuralism
A
based on the notion that the task of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its basic elements and investigate how these elements are related
3
Q
Introspection
A
the careful, systematic self-observation of one’s own conscious experience
4
Q
Functionalism
A
based on the belief that psychology should investigate the function or purpose of consciousness, rather than its structure
5
Q
The Unconscious
A
contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are well below the surface of conscious awareness but that nonetheless exert great influence on behavior
6
Q
Psychoanalytic theory
A
attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior
7
Q
Behaviorism
A
theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior
8
Q
Behavior
A
refers to any overt (observable) response or activity by an organism
9
Q
humanism
A
a theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom and their potential for personal growth
10
Q
Clinical psychology
A
branch of psychology concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders
11
Q
Cognition
A
refers to the mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge
Involves thinking or conscious experience
12
Q
Evolutionary psychology
A
examines behavioral processes in terms of their adaptive value for members of a species over the course of many generations
Natural selection favors behaviors that enhance reproductive success
13
Q
Positive psychology
A
Uses theory and research to better understand the positive, adaptive, creative, and fulfilling aspects of human existence
14
Q
Positive Subjective Experiences
A
Positive Emotions
15
Q
Positive individual traits
A
Personal strengths and virtues
16
Q
Positive institutes and communities
A
how societies can foster:
~civil discourse
~strong families
~healthful work environments
~supportive neighborhood communities
17
Q
Psychiatry
A
branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders
18
Q
Empiricism
A
the premise that knowledge should be acquired through observation
19
Q
Theory
A
a system of unrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations
A system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations
Theoretical psychology is a strength rather than a weakness
20
Q
Culture
A
refers to the widely shared customs, beliefs, values, norms, institutions, and other products of a community that are transmitted socially across generations
21
Q
Critical thinking
A
purposeful, reasoned, goal-directed thinking that involves solving problems, formulating inferences, working with probabilities, and making carefully thought-out decisions
critical thinking = transcontextual skills
22
Q
Science
A
An approach to answering questions that is based on the systematic collection and logical analysis of objectively observable data.
data analyzed using rules of logic
23
Q
Questions of value
A
Good or bad, right or wrong, etc.
24
Q
Questions of objective fact
A
what exists
Science is best suited to answer these questions
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Determinism
the beliefs/assumptions that things happen for a reason
*cause - effect relationships exist*
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Operational definition
describes the actions or operations that will be used to measure or control a variable
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Participants/subjects
the persons or animals whose behavior is systematically observed in a study
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data collection techniques
procedures for making empirical observations and measurements
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journal
A periodical that publishes technical and scholarly material, usually in a narrowly defined area of inquiry
30
Research methods
consist of differing approaches to the observation, measurement, manipulation, and control of variables in empirical studies
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experiment
research method in which the investigator manipulates a variable under carefully controlled conditions and observes whether any changes occur in a second variable as a result
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independent variable
a condition or event that an experimenter varies in order to see its impact on another variable
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dependent variable
The variable that is thought to be affected by manipulation of the independent variable
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experimental group
consists of the subjects who receive some special treatment in regard to the independent variable.
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Control group
consists of similar subjects who do not receive the special treatment given to the experimental group
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extraneous variables
any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific way
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confounding of variables
occurs when two variables are linked in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their specific effects
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Random assignment
Occurs when all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to any group or condition in the study
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correlation
exists when two variables are related to each other
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correlation coefficient
a numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables
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naturalistic observation
a researcher engages in careful observation of behavior without intervening directly with the subjects
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reactivity
occurs when a subjects behavior is altered by the presence of an observer
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case study
An in-depth investigation of an individual subject
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survey
researchers use questionnaires or interviews to gather information about specific aspects of participants’ background, attitudes, beliefs, or behavior
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sample
the collection of subjects selected for observation in an empirical study.
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Population
Much larger collection of animals or people (from which the sample is drawn) that researchers want to generalize about
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sampling bias
exists when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn
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placebo affect
occur when participants expectation lead them to experience some change even thought they receive empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment
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social desirability bias
A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself
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experimenter bias
occurs when a researchers expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained
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double-blind procedure
a research strategy in which neither subjects nor experimenters know which subject are in the experimental or control groups
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replication
the repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results are duplicated
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meta-analysis
combines the statistical results of many studies of the same questions, yielding an estimate of the size and consistency of a variables effects
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Neurons
individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information
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soma
cell body; contains cell nucleus and much of the chemical machinery common to most cells
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dendrites
parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information
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axon
long, thin fiber that transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons or to muscle or glands
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myelin sheath
insulating material that encases some axons
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terminal buttons
small knobs that secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters
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neurotransmitters
Chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another
serve as messengers that may activate neighboring neurons
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Synapse
junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to another
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glia
cells found throughout the nervous system that provide various types of support for neurons
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resting potential
(of a neuron) is its stable, negative charge when the cell is inactive
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action potential
a very brief shift in a neuron’s electrical charge that travels along an axon
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Absolute refractory period
the minimum length of time after an action potential, during which another action potential cannot begin
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synaptic cleft
microscopic gap between the terminal button of one neuron and the cell membrane of another neuron
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postsynaptic potential
voltage change at a receptor site on a postsynaptic cell membrane
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reuptake
a process in which neurotransmitters are sponged up from the synaptic cleft by the presynaptic membrane
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acetylcholine
released by motor neurons controlling skeletal muscles. Contributes to the regulation of attention, arousal, and memory. Some ACh receptors stimulated by nicotine
70
Dopamine
Contributes to control of voluntary movement. Cocaine and amphetamines elevate activity at DA synapses. Dopamine circuits in medial forebrain bundle characterized as ‘reward pathway’
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Norepinephrine
contributes to modulation of mood and arousal. Cocaine and amphetamines elevate activity at NE synapses
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serotonin
involved in regulation of sleep and wakefulness, eating, aggression. Prozac and similar antidepressant drugs affect serotonin circuits.
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GABA
serves as widely distributed inhibitory transmitter, contributing to regulation of anxiety and sleep/arousal. Valium and similar anti anxiety drugs work at GABA synapses
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Endorphins
internally produced chemicals that resemble opiates in structure and effects
Resemble opiate drugs in structure and effects. Play role in pain relief and response to stress. Contribute to regulation of eating behavior
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Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
made of all those nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord.
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Nerves
bundles of neuron fibers (axons) that are routed together in the peripheral nervous system
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somatic nervous system (SNS)
made up of nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory receptors
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afferent nerve fibers
axons that carry information inward to the central nervous system from the periphery of the body.
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efferent nerve fibers
axons that carry information outward from the central nervous system to the periphery of the body.
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autonomic nervous system (ANS)
made up of nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles, and glands
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Sympathetic division
the branch of the ANS that mobilizes the body’s resources for emergencies
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parasympathetic division
branch of ANS that generally conserves bodily resources
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Central Nervous System (CNS)
consists of the brain and spinal cord
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lesioning
involves destroying a piece of the brain
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electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB)
involves sending a weak electric current into a brain structure to stimulate (activate) it.
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Hindbrain
includes the cerebellum and two structures found in the lower part of the brain stem, the medulla and the pons
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Midbrain
segment of the brain stem that lies between the hindbrain and the forebrain
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Forebrain
largest and most complex region of the brain, encompassing a variety of structures, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum
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thalamus
a structure in the forebrain through which all sensory information (Except Smell) must pass to get to the cerebral cortex
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hypothalamus
a structure found near the base of the forebrain that is involved in the regulation of basic biological needs
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limbic system
loosely connected network of structures located roughly along the border between the cerebral cortex and deeper subcortical areas
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cerebral cortex
the convoluted outer layer of the cerebrum
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cerebral hemispheres
the right and left halves of the cerebrum
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corpus callosum
the major structure that connects the two cerebral hemispheres
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split-brain surgery
bundle of fibers that connects the cerebral hemispheres (corpus callosum) is cut to reduce the severity of epileptic seizures
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endocrine system
consists of glands that secrete chemicals into the bloodstream that help control bodily functioning
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hormones
the chemical substances released by the endocrine glands
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pituitary gland
releases a great variety of hormones that fan out within the body, stimulating actions in the other endocrine glands
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oxytocin
hormone that is released by the pituitary gland and regulates reproductive behaviors
100
chromosomes
threadlike strands of DNA molecules that carry genetic information
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Genes
DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in heredity transmission
102
polygenic traits
characteristics that are influenced by more than one pair of genes
103
family studies
researchers assess hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to see how much they resemble one another on a specific trait
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twin studies
researchers assess hereditary influence by comparing the resemblance of identical twins and fraternal twins with respect to a trait
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adoptive studies
assess hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological and their adoptive parents
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epigenetics
the study of heritable changes in gene expression that do not involve modifications to the DNA sequence
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fitness
refers to the reproductive success (number of descendants) of an individual organism relative to the average reproductive success in the population
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natural selection
posits that heritable characteristics that provide a survival or reproductive advantage are more likely than alternative characteristics to be passed on to subsequent generations, and thus they come to be “selected” over time
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adaptation
an inherited characteristic that increased in a population (through natural selection) because it helped solve a problem of survival or reproduction during the time it emerged
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Critical period
a limited time span in the development of an organism when it is optimal for certain capacities to emerge because the organism is especially responsive to certain experiences
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Lens
transparent eye structure that focuses the light rays falling on the retina
112
nearsightedness
close objects are seen clearly, but distant objects appear blurry
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farsightedness
distant objects are seen clearly but near objects appear blurry
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pupil
the opening in the center of the iris that helps regulate the amount of light passing into the rear chamber of the eye
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cones
specialized visual receptors that play a key role in daylight vision and color vision
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fovea
a tiny spot in the center of the retina that contains only cones; visual acuity is greatest at this spot
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rods
specialized visual receptors that play a key role in night vision and peripheral vision
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dark adaptation
the process in which the eyes become more sensitive to light in low illumination
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light adaptation
the process in which the eyes become less sensitive to light in high illumination
120
receptive field of a visual cell
the retinal area that, when stimulated, affects the firing of that cell
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optic chiasm
the point at which the axons from the inside half of each eye cross over and then project to the opposite half of the brain
122
feature detectors
neurons that respond to selectively to very specific features of more complex stimuli
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subtractive color mixing
removing some wavelengths of light, leaving less light than was originally there
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additive color mixing
superimposing lights putting more light in the mixture that exists in any one light by itself
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trichromatic theory
the human eye has three types of receptors with differing sensitivities to different light wavelengths
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colorblindness
encompasses a variety of deficiencies in the ability to distinguish among colors
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complementary colors
pairs of colors that produce gray tones when mixed together
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afterimage
a visual image that persists after a stimulus is removed
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Opponent process theory
color perception depends on receptors that make antagonistic responses to three pairs of colors
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reversible figure
a drawing that is compatible with two different interpretations that can shift back and forth
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perceptual set
a readiness to perceive a stimulus in a particular way
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inattentional blindness
involves one’s failure to see fully visible objects or events in a visual display because ones attention is focused elsewhere
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feature analysis
the process of detecting specific elements in visual input and assembling them into a more complex form
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bottom-up processing
a progression from individual elements to the whole
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top-down processing
a progression from the whole to the elements
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phi phenomenon
the illusion of movement created by presenting visual stimuli in rapid succession
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perceptual hypothesis
an inference about what form could be responsible for a pattern of sensory stimulation
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depth perception
interpretation if visual cues that indicate how near or far away objects are
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binocular depth cues
cues about distance based on the differing views of the two eyes
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retinal disparity
refers to the fact that objects within 25 feet project images to slightly different locations on the right and left retinas, so the right and left eyes see slightly different views of the object
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monocular depth cues
clues about distance based on the image in either eye alone
142
pictorial depth cues
cues about distance that can be given in a flat picture
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perceptual constancy
a tendency to experience a stable perception in the face of continually changing sensory input
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visual illusion
involves an apparently inexplicable discrepancy between the appearance of a visual stimulus and its physical reality
145
visual illusion
involves an apparently inexplicable discrepancy between the appearance of a visual stimulus and its physical reality
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place theory
perception of pitch corresponds to the vibration of different portions, or places, along the basilar membrane
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frequency theory
perception of pitch corresponds to the rate, or frequency, at which the entire basilar membrane vibrates
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auditory localization
locating the source of a sound in space
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gustatory system
the sensory system for taste
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sensory adaptation
a gradual decline in sensitivity to prolonged stimulation
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olfactory system
sensory system for smell
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door-in-the-face technique
involves making a large request that is likely to be turned down as a way to increase the chances that people will agree to a smaller request later
153
comparators
people, objects, events, and other standards that are used as a baseline for comparison in making judgments
