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Psychology AP > Unit Six: Cognition > Flashcards

Unit Six: Cognition Flashcards

1
Q

Memory

A

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

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2
Q

Encoding

A

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning

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3
Q

Storage

A

the process of retaining encoded information over time

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4
Q

Retrieval

A

the process of getting information out of memory storage

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5
Q

Parallel processing

A

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving

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6
Q

Connectionism

A

views memories as products of interconnected neural networks

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7
Q

Sensory memory

A

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

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8
Q

Short-term memory

A

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.

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9
Q

Long-term memory

A

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

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10
Q

Working memory

A

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

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11
Q

Information processing models

A

analogies that compare human memory to a computer’s operations

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12
Q

Explicit memories

A

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” (Also called declarative memory.)

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13
Q

Effortful processing

A

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

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14
Q

Automatic processing

A

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

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15
Q

Implicit memories

A

retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)

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16
Q

Iconic memory

A

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

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17
Q

Echoic memory

A

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

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18
Q

Chunking

A

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

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19
Q

Mnemonics

A

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

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20
Q

Spacing effects

A

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

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21
Q

Testing effects

A

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning

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22
Q

Shallow processing

A

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

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23
Q

Deep processng

A

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

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24
Q

Hippocampus and side for visual vs verbal

A

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage-> storage is elsewhere

Visual is right, verbal is left

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25
Role of cerebellum in memory
implicit memories created by classical conditioning
26
Role of basal ganglia in memory
procedural memories for skills
27
Infantile amnesia
we do not have conscious memories of our first three years of life (we retain implicit while removing explicit)
28
Flashbulb memories
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
29
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
30
Recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test
31
Recognition
measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
32
Relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again
33
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
34
Mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
35
Serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first (a primacy effect) items in a list
36
Atkinson and Shriffrin Theory
three types of memory- sensory, short-term, long-term
37
Central executive
handles focus, what we are trying to remember
38
Anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
39
Retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one’s past
40
Proactive interference
prior learning disrupts recall of new information
41
Retroactive interference
new learning disrupts recall of old information
42
Positive transfer
previously learned information often helps our learning of new information
43
Misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event
44
Source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories
45
Déjà vu
that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
46
Cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
47
Concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
48
Prototype
a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin).
49
Creativity
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.
50
Convergent thinking
narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.
51
Divergent thinking
expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions).
52
What kind of thinking does the left parietal lobe do? (Convergent vs Divergent)
convergent thinking-IQ
53
What kind of thinking do certain areas of the frontal lobe do? (Convergent vs Divergent)
divergent thinking-CQ
54
Five components of creativity (we probably do not need to know this)
expertise, imaginative thinking skills, a venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, a creative enviornment
55
Self-reference effect
we encode information better when it relates to ourselves
56
Ebbinghaus
his forgetting curve of how well he remembered his nonsense syllables dropped quickly, then leveled off-forgetting in initially rapid, then levels off with time
57
Loftus
memory studies, misinformation effects, released due to DNA when they were put in from eyewitness
58
Reconsolidation
everytime we remember something it changes
59
Algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error-prone—use of heuristics
60
Heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms
61
Insight
a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions-temporal lobe
62
Mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
63
Confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
64
Fixation
an inability see a problem from a new perspective
65
Intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
66
Tversky and Kahneman
representativeness and availability heuristics, decision studies
67
Representativeness heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
68
Availability heuristic
judging the likelihood of events based on how mentally available they are
69
Overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments
70
Belief perseverance
clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
71
Framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments
72
Imagination inflation
each time you tell something, you change it; repeatedly imagining nonexistent action and events can create false memory
73
Sternberg
five components of creativity
74
Language
our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
75
Phoneme
in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
76
Morpheme
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)
77
Grammer
in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. In a given language, semantics is the set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is the set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentence
78
Receptive language
the ability to understand what is said to and about yourself
79
Productive language
the ability to produce words
80
Babbling stage (age)
beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
81
One-word stage (age)
the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words
82
Two-word stage (age)
beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements
83
Telegraphic speech
early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—“go car”—using mostly nouns and verb
84
Aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding)
85
Broca's area
controls language expression—an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.
86
Wernicke's area
controls language reception—a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
87
Linguistic determinism, scientist
the hypothesis that language determines the way we think, Whorf
88
Bilingual advantage
they are more skilled at inhibition attention to irrelevant information, due to inhibiting one of their two languages
89
Semantics
meaning from sounds
90
Syntax
ordering words into sentences
91
Chomskey
no specific language, born to learn any language (we lose this ability), universal grammar (nouns, verbs, adjectives), language acquisition device (any language), critical period
92
Frontal lobe and memory- side for numbers and visual
Working memory, left side numbers and right side visual
93
AP-Language mechanics
Written rules
94
AP-Language pragmatics
Unspoken, words you use for friends vs boss
95
AP-Denotation
Dictionary meaning
96
AP-Connotation
The general meaning
97
AP-Linguistic competence
The ability to produce and understand without hearing the specific sentence before
98
Order the following abilities- recognize differences in sounds+read lips, segment sounds into words, ID household language, three stages, word learning is one per day, recognize simple sentence structures, lose the ability to master any language. (This is beyond what we will need to do)
``` Lips~4 mo Babbling S~4 mo Sounds into words~7 mo Simple sentences~7 mo Household~10 mo One-Word S~12 mo One per day~18 mo Two-Word S~24 mo Lose bilingualism~7 yrs ```

Psychology AP (13 decks)

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