Untitled Deck

Question 1

What are the three types of steroid hormones?

Answer 1

Mineralocorticoids, Glucocorticoids, Androgens

Question 2

What do mineralocorticoids regulate?

Answer 2

They help regulate Na+/K+ levels in the body.

Question 3

What is the role of Aldosterone?

Answer 3

Aldosterone helps regulate blood pressure and fluid retention.

Question 4

How does Aldosterone affect blood pressure?

Answer 4

Aldosterone signals kidneys to retain sodium, increasing blood volume and blood pressure.

Question 5

What happens if Aldosterone levels increase?

Answer 5

Blood pressure and fluid retention increase.

Question 6

What happens if Aldosterone levels decrease?

Answer 6

Blood pressure and fluid retention decrease, leading to dehydration and increased K+ levels.

Question 7

What do glucocorticoids control?

Answer 7

They control how the body uses energy by managing metabolism.

Question 8

What is the role of Cortisol?

Answer 8

Cortisol helps control metabolism and ensures the body has enough energy during stress.

Question 9

How does Cortisol increase blood sugar?

Answer 9

Cortisol signals the liver to produce glucose from proteins and fats.

Question 10

What is the effect of Cortisol on fats and proteins?

Answer 10

Cortisol breaks down fats and proteins to release fatty acids and amino acids for energy.

Question 11

What is the role of Androgens?

Answer 11

Androgens serve as precursors to sex hormones like testosterone and estrogen.

Question 12

How are mineralocorticoids controlled?

Answer 12

They are controlled by the kidneys through the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS).

Question 13

What triggers Aldosterone release?

Answer 13

When blood pressure or sodium levels drop, the kidneys release renin, leading to aldosterone release.

Question 14

What are the layers of the adrenal cortex?

Answer 14

Zona Glomerulosa, Zona Fasciculata, Zona Reticularis.

Question 15

What does the Zona Glomerulosa produce?

Answer 15

Mineralocorticoids like aldosterone.

Question 16

What does the Zona Fasciculata produce?

Answer 16

Glucocorticoids like cortisol.

Question 17

What does the Zona Reticularis produce?

Answer 17

Androgens like DHEA.

Question 18

What is the starting material for adrenal steroid hormones?

Answer 18

Cholesterol.

Question 19

What is the first step in hormone synthesis from cholesterol?

Answer 19

Cholesterol is converted to Δ⁵-Pregnenolone in the mitochondria.

Question 20

What enzyme is key in converting Pregnenolone into active steroid hormones?

Answer 20

β-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase (β-HSD).

Question 21

How is cortisol production regulated?

Answer 21

By ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone) acting on zona fasciculata and zona reticularis cells.

Question 22

What is the RAAS pathway?

Answer 22

A pathway that triggers aldosterone release when blood pressure or sodium levels drop.

Question 23

What does Angiotensin II do?

Answer 23

It stimulates the zona glomerulosa to release aldosterone.

Question 24

What is the role of 11β-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Type II?

Answer 24

It converts cortisol into cortisone, preventing cortisol from activating mineralocorticoid receptors.

Question 25

What are the general effects of Aldosterone on the kidney?

Answer 25

Increases Na⁺ and water reabsorption, affecting blood volume and pressure.

Question 26

What happens to K⁺ levels with Aldosterone?

Answer 26

K⁺ is excreted into the urine.

Question 27

What are the short-term effects of Aldosterone on Principal Cells?

Answer 27

Increases Na⁺ reabsorption and K⁺ excretion.

Question 28

What are the long-term effects of Aldosterone on Principal Cells?

Answer 28

Increases production of ENaC and Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase, enhancing Na⁺ reabsorption.

Question 29

What is the physiological effect of Cortisol in response to stress?

Answer 29

Increases blood sugar levels and suppresses the immune system.

Question 30

What is the normal insulin response?

Answer 30

Insulin binds to its receptor, activating pathways that allow glucose uptake into cells.

Question 31

What is the effect of Cortisol on insulin sensitivity?

Answer 31

Cortisol induces insulin resistance by increasing hormone-sensitive lipase.

Question 32

What activates PI3-Kinase?

Answer 32

Insulin Receptor Substrate-1 (IRS-1) gets phosphorylated on tyrosine.

Question 33

What does AKT kinase trigger?

Answer 33

GLUT transporter exocytosis, allowing glucose uptake into cells.

Question 34

How does cortisol induce insulin resistance?

Answer 34

Cortisol binds to the Glucocorticoid Receptor (GR), increasing transcription of hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL).

Question 35

What does HSL do?

Answer 35

HSL breaks down triglycerides (TAGs) into 3 fatty acids (FAs) and glycerol.

Question 36

How do fatty acids affect IRS-1?

Answer 36

Fatty acids activate PKC-theta, which phosphorylates a serine on IRS-1, blocking insulin signaling.

Question 37

What is the consequence of serine phosphorylation of IRS-1?

Answer 37

It prevents IRS-1 activation, inhibiting GLUT transporter movement and reducing glucose uptake.

Question 38

What compensatory mechanism does the liver use when glucose uptake is blocked?

Answer 38

The liver breaks down glycogen into glucose and converts OAA to glucose via PEP Carboxykinase.

Question 39

What role does cortisol play in gluconeogenesis?

Answer 39

Cortisol increases PEP Carboxykinase, boosting glucose production.

Question 40

What are the symptoms of inflammation?

Answer 40

Redness and heat due to vasodilation; swelling due to fluid leakage.

Question 41

What mediates inflammation?

Answer 41

Eicosanoids from Arachidonic Acid, released by PLA2, PLC, DAG lipase, and cytokines.

Question 42

What activates NF-κB in normal conditions?

Answer 42

NF-κB is inhibited by IκB, blocking inflammation.

Question 43

What happens when IL-1 and TNF-α bind to their receptors?

Answer 43

They activate IκB kinase (IKK), leading to phosphorylation and detachment of IκB from NF-κB.

Question 44

What is the result of NF-κB entering the nucleus?

Answer 44

It activates inflammation genes, increasing PLA2, COX-2, IL-1, TNF-α, and iNOS.

Question 45

How do glucocorticoids suppress inflammation?

Answer 45

Cortisol increases transcription of IκB, which re-binds NF-κB, stopping inflammation.

Question 46

What effect does cortisol have on blood pressure?

Answer 46

It increases transcription of Renin and Angiotensin II Type I Receptors, boosting vasoconstriction.

Question 47

What are the overall effects of cortisol in stress?

Answer 47

Increases blood sugar, suppresses the immune system, and increases blood pressure.

Question 48

What stimulates glucocorticoid production?

Answer 48

CRH released from the hypothalamus binds to CRH receptors on pituitary corticotrophs.

Question 49

What is the role of PKA in glucocorticoid production?

Answer 49

PKA activates transcription of POMC, which is cleaved into ACTH.

Question 50

What does ACTH do?

Answer 50

ACTH binds to Melanocortin Receptors on Zona Fasciculata and Zona Reticularis Cells, stimulating cortisol synthesis.

Question 51

How do glucocorticoids regulate their own production?

Answer 51

They inhibit further ACTH production through negative feedback at the hypothalamus and pituitary.