Untitled Deck Flashcards
(188 cards)
1
Q
What does DuPont do?
A
Developing and providing agricultural products and technologies, including seeds, crop protection products, and farm management software.
2
Q
What is being farmed in the Carrado?
A
The main crop is soybeans.
3
Q
What percentage of total food-system emissions are food miles?
A
19% of total food-system emissions (transport, production and land-use change).
4
Q
Where is Havana?
A
Capital of Cuba.
5
Q
What are the recommendations for consumers to ensure food security in the UK?
A
Eliminate vast quantities of food waste, tackle diet-related issues, increase availability of organic produce, cut supply chains by encouraging local sourcing, and eat more seasonal food.
6
Q
What sustainable techniques have been used in the UK to increase food availability?
A
Hydroponics, such as Fresh Leaf Co, which grows food with 100% renewable energy in a climate-controlled vertical farm.
7
Q
Give an example of a farm in the UK using sustainable techniques.
A
Dyson farming in Lincolnshire, which uses technologies to grow produce responsibly while nurturing the natural environment.
8
Q
What are the recommendations for producers to ensure food security in the UK?
A
Grow more food sustainably, introduce GM crops, increase spending on new varieties, and ensure efficient infrastructural support.
9
Q
What has the UK done to try to improve food security?
A
In 2009, the UK government published ‘Food 2030’ and allocated £15m to tackle food waste.
10
Q
What are the 6 core issues in the UK’s food system?
A
1) Healthy & sustainable diet 2) Resilient food system 3) Sustainable food production 4) Reducing greenhouse gas emissions 5) Reducing waste 6) Increasing skills and research.
11
Q
What is food security like in the UK?
A
The UK imports approximately 49% of its food, with rising obesity rates and a need for increased domestic production.
12
Q
What does the future look like for Cuba?
A
Cuba must address food security issues, facing challenges from climate change and reliance on imports.
13
Q
What support is there for farmers in Cuba?
A
The government has raised guaranteed prices and provides assistance through programs like PALMA.
14
Q
What new crops have been adopted in Cuba?
A
Drought-resistant crops like avocado, oranges, guava, and GM corn.
15
Q
Where have there been changes to land tenure in Cuba?
A
Large state-run farms have been replaced by small-scale cooperatives, with 15% of arable land now privately owned.
16
Q
Have attempts to increase food security in Cuba been successful?
A
Yes, urban farms supply a significant portion of Havana’s fruit and vegetables.
17
Q
What is urban agriculture?
A
Urban agriculture involves organiponicos, small-scale cooperatives producing food on urban waste ground.
18
Q
What are the 7 challenges facing Cuban agriculture?
A
1) Severe weather events 2) Degraded soils 3) Lack of mechanisation 4) Foreign exchange shortages 5) Inefficient state-owned farms 6) Insufficient food shops 7) Existence of a black market.
19
Q
What is food security like in Cuba?
A
Cuba imports 70-80% of its food, mainly corn and rice, but is 90% self-sufficient in fruit and vegetables.
20
Q
What is the background of Cuba’s agriculture?
A
Cuban agriculture was highly industrialised in the 1960s but collapsed after the USSR’s fall in 1991.
21
Q
What are your case studies for strategies to improve food security?
A
Cuba and the UK.
22
Q
What AO2 can you make about the different approaches to food security?
A
Large-scale approaches may impact more people, but small-scale can help those most at risk.
23
Q
Give examples of small-scale bottom-up approaches to improve food security.
A
Self-help schemes, rainwater harvesting, and sack gardening.
24
Q
What are the concerns over GM crops?
A
Potential allergic reactions, unexpected effects, environmental issues, and reduced nutrition.
25
What are the benefits of GM crops?
More nutritious food, disease resistance, reduced pesticide use, and longer shelf life.
26
What scale are GM crops used at?
Large scale, with significant percentages of cotton, sugar beets, soybeans, and corn being GMO.
27
What are GM crops?
Organisms with altered genetic material for specific properties.
28
Give examples of large-scale technological techniques to improve food security.
GM crops with higher yields and development of crops for harsh conditions.
29
Who would be involved in implementing long-term food aid?
Governments, local communities, TNCs, and NGOs.
30
Are all approaches to food security of equal importance?
No, top-down approaches are generally more important for economic development.
31
How can capacity building in the food supply system be achieved?
Through economic development, investment in research, infrastructure, and education.
32
What are the threats to a country having a resilient food system?
Financial crises, fluctuating prices, conflict, land grabbing, and natural events.
33
What is meant by 'capacity building'?
The ability of communities and institutions to build a resilient food system.
34
What can long-term relief be divided into?
Capacity building and long-term system redesign.
35
What does short-term relief involve?
The WFP supplying food aid to desperate groups.
36
What can the approaches to increase food security be divided into?
Short-term relief and long-term system redesign and capacity building.
37
What are the negatives of fair trade?
Less effective in LIDCs, competition with TNCs, and higher costs during economic strain.
38
What are the strengths of fair trade?
Increases standard of living, provides a safety net, and ensures good working conditions.
39
How do fair trade organisations influence the global food system?
By supporting producer organisations and collaborating with large TNCs.
40
What are the negatives of food retailers?
Adverse effects on local traders and environmental damage from fertilizers.
41
What are the strengths of food retailers?
Availability of food in underserved areas and reduced food prices.
42
Give examples of powerful food retailers.
Tesco, Sainsburys, Walmart, and fast food chains like KFC and McDonald's.
43
Why have food retailers emerged in the developing world?
Due to population growth in urban areas and control over food retailing.
44
How do food retailers influence the global food system?
By dominating distribution and retailing, impacting local markets.
45
What are the negatives of TNCs?
Displacement of local farmers and environmental damage from agricultural practices.
46
What are the strengths of TNCs?
Providing food to areas with insufficient domestic supply.
47
What are the negatives of TNCs?
Can lead to the displacement of local farmers, reducing their incomes and yields, which affects food security. TNCs have more power and their use of fertilizers and pesticides can have damaging environmental effects.
48
What are the strengths of TNCs?
TNCs make food available in areas with insufficient domestic food supply by transporting food to hunger-stricken countries. They can meet demand for products that cannot be home-grown, reducing food prices.
49
How do TNCs influence the global food system?
TNCs often specialize in downstream activities such as the processing and distribution of food.
## Footnote
Examples include Nestle, Unilever, Kraft, and General Foods.
50
What are the negatives of agribusiness?
Agribusiness focuses on profit, often ignoring damaging environmental side effects. The use of GM crops and large amounts of agrochemicals can negatively impact future food production and security.
51
What are the strengths of agribusiness?
Produces large quantities of food, increasing global food availability, especially in ACs/EDCs, while reducing food prices.
52
What is agribusiness?
Agribusiness refers to large-scale, capital-intensive, corporate farming by business enterprises involved throughout the food chain, including production, processing, and distribution.
## Footnote
Example: DuPont.
53
What are the 4 profit-making organizations influencing the global food system?
Agribusiness TNCs, food retailers, and fair trade organizations.
54
What were the outcomes of the MERET program?
20% reduction in poverty rates, sufficient crops grown to feed families and raise profits, safer cooking stoves, and more time for farm management.
55
What did the MERET program do?
Implemented terraced hillsides to prevent erosion, dug ditches and irrigation channels, built dams for sustainable water supply, and installed new cooking stoves.
## Footnote
Example: The Mirt Stove reduces firewood consumption by 20% to 40%.
56
Give an example of an alternative to direct food aid.
The MERET programme was a joint venture between the WFP and the Ethiopian government to feed people while they worked on land reclamation.
57
What did they do in Nepal during the emergency food aid?
Delivered food to survivors, focusing on remote mountain communities, distributed food to nearly 2 million people, provided cash for local food purchases, and offered cash for work to clear community infrastructure.
58
What are the negatives of food aid?
Food aid often reflects donor countries' interests rather than recipient needs, can lead to over-dependence, and may cause donor fatigue.
59
What is a major positive of food aid?
Food aid has made crucial contributions to saving lives in emergencies, such as in the civil conflict in Syria and the earthquakes in Nepal in 2015.
60
What is donor-driven food aid?
Donor-driven food aid uses food aid to 'dump' surplus food from ACs, with countries like the US, Canada, and EU states involved.
61
What are the 3 types of food aid?
Project food aid, programme food aid, and emergency/relief food aid.
62
What different forms can food aid take?
Bilateral arrangements between governments, international agency work, and storage and distribution of major food staples.
63
What is food aid?
Help in the form of basic items of food given to a country or region suffering from a food shortage.
64
What is the World Trade Organisation?
The WTO, established in 1995, provides a forum for governments to negotiate trade agreements and supports free trade by persuading countries to abolish tariffs.
65
What are bilateral agreements?
Agreements made between two political entities that are mutually beneficial and legally binding.
## Footnote
Example: Sainsbury's and Waitrose trade agreements with St Lucia for fair trade bananas.
66
What was wrong with the Lome agreement?
The EU's CAP negatively impacted ACP nations by suppressing the development of commercial farming due to unfair trade terms.
67
What are multilateral agreements?
Agreements where several countries engage in a trading relationship with a third party.
## Footnote
Example: The Lome Agreement (1975) provided free trade access to EU markets for ACP nations.
68
How have the EU attempted to increase food security?
The EU's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) aimed to provide affordable food for EU citizens while ensuring a fair standard of living for farmers.
69
What is a trading bloc?
An agreement between countries to promote free trade among members while imposing tariffs on imports from non-member states.
## Footnote
Example: The EU, ASEAN.
70
How can trade be used to ensure food security?
Through trading blocs, multilateral agreements, and bilateral agreements.
71
What is the pattern of trade like?
The global geography of food trade is dominated by the EU, USA, and China, with changing diets in emerging economies creating new trade flows.
72
How can trade influence patterns of food insecurity?
Export subsidies and import tariffs by developed countries hinder poorer countries' ability to compete in international markets.
73
Why is trade important in ensuring food security?
Trade is critical for food security, requiring cooperation among governments for mutual benefit, with unprecedented food trade scale increasing fivefold over the past 50 years.
74
What are the 3 opportunities between countries to ensure food security?
Agricultural trading policies, the role of the World Trade Organisation, and appropriate aid.
75
What is meant by 'geopolitics'?
The concept of space, nations, and their relations, with food becoming a geopolitical commodity.
76
Do patterns of health inequalities related to food insecurity vary in Sweden?
Yes, they vary across social groups, with higher income groups consuming more fruits and vegetables compared to lower income groups.
77
How else does poor food security impact Sweden?
Economic costs are rising, with estimates that health costs of obesity will double by 2030, necessitating tax increases for health and social care.
78
What serious health concerns have occurred as a result of dietary hazards in Sweden?
Poor diet is a leading risk for death and disability, contributing to cardiovascular diseases, obesity, and various cancers.
79
What is food security like in Sweden?
The population has access to food, but the diet does not secure a healthy lifestyle, impacting people's health.
80
What is Sweden like?
Sweden has a population of 10 million, with only 1.2 million hectares of land harvested and agriculture employing 1.8% of the population.
81
What are the difficulties with food security projects in Kenya?
Challenges include finding contamination-free sites and a high dependency on food aid in areas like Kibera.
82
What are the advantages of sack farming in Kibera?
Young people receive wages, meals, and training, increasing access to food for the urban poor and supporting local businesses.
83
What has been done to combat food insecurity in Kenya?
Innovative urban agriculture practices like 'sack gardening' have been introduced to grow crops in limited spaces.
84
How has food insecurity impacted people in Kenya?
2 million people rely on food assistance, and 29% of the population is undernourished.
85
What is the wealth situation in Kenya?
Half the population lives below the poverty line, with chronic food insecurity caused by access issues and land leasing to foreign investors.
86
What is Kenya like?
Kenya has a population of 52 million and a growing economy based on tourism, telecommunications, and agriculture.
87
What are the impacts of poor food security case studies?
Case studies include Kenya and Sweden, highlighting different scales and causes of food insecurity.
88
How does the use of chemicals and pesticides affect economies and biodiversity?
It drains economies due to illness and injury, affects crop yields, and is linked to declines in biodiversity.
89
Who is responsible for protecting public health regarding food safety issues in the UK?
The Food Standard Agency (FSA) oversees food safety, while other countries may have less stringent regulations.
90
What are the health issues associated with increased use of chemicals and pesticides?
Exposure can lead to fertility issues, obesity, and various diseases, particularly affecting pregnant mothers and children.
91
What is a good AO2 point about malnourishment and obesity?
Developing nations face undernutrition while also dealing with rising costs of treating obesity-related illnesses.
92
How can obesity be reduced?
Preventable through lifestyle changes, government responsibilities, and food industry practices to promote healthy choices.
93
How can obesity be reduced?
Obesity can be reduced through lifestyle changes such as exercising more, reducing calorie intake, and consuming more fruits and vegetables. Governments have a responsibility to ensure that a healthy diet is affordable and accessible, especially for those in poverty.
94
What has caused rising levels of obesity?
Obesity is caused when calories consumed exceed calories burned. There has been an increased intake of energy-dense foods high in fat and sugar, alongside a decrease in physical activity.
95
Why is obesity a growing concern?
The number of overweight people exceeds the number of underweight people for the first time in history, a phenomenon referred to as 'globesity'.
96
What are the health issues associated with food surplus & poor diets?
Health risks include cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, musculoskeletal disorders, cancer, joint pain, stroke, mental health issues, liver disease, and sleep apnea.
97
What AO2 point can be used about food shortages?
The negative health implications are greatest for those living in severely food insecure households due to lack of access to medical care and medicines.
98
What are the health issues associated with food shortages?
Nearly 30% of the world's population suffers from malnutrition, leading to infectious diseases, low energy levels, poor oral health, chronic pain, heart disease, and nutrient deficiencies.
99
How do food security issues impact people?
Food shortages and surpluses, along with chemical use, affect nutrition and health.
100
Who is the driver of deforestation?
Large commercial farms owned by a wealthy minority often marginalize small-scale indigenous farmers.
101
What other environmental impacts has deforestation had?
Deforestation disrupts the food chain, disturbs microclimates, causes local air pollution, and leads to loss of biodiversity.
102
How does deforestation affect the carbon cycle?
Deforestation reduces carbon storage in trees and releases CO2, increasing atmospheric levels and contributing to climate change.
103
How does deforestation affect the water cycle?
Deforestation decreases interception, increases overland flow, and reduces evapotranspiration, leading to lower precipitation levels.
104
What does deforestation cause?
Deforestation has both short and long-term environmental and human impacts, disrupting water and carbon cycles.
105
How do they clear forests for food production?
Forests are cleared using 'slash and burn techniques', which produce nutrient-rich soil for rapid plant growth.
106
Where has been impacted as a result of deforestation for food production?
The Amazon rainforest has been significantly affected, with agriculture accounting for approximately 75% of deforestation.
107
How do the use of pesticides impact surface and groundwater?
Pesticides contaminate surface water, disrupting ecosystems and posing public health risks, while some may leach into groundwater.
108
How does manure spreading impact surface and groundwater?
Manure spreading can lead to contamination of surface water and groundwater, causing eutrophication and health risks.
109
How do the use of fertilizers impact surface and groundwater?
Fertilizer runoff causes eutrophication in surface water and leaching of nitrates into groundwater, threatening public health.
110
What chemicals are there to increase food production?
Agrochemicals, including fertilizers, manure, and pesticides, are used to increase food production.
111
What has been done to try and reduce these impacts?
In the UK, the entry level stewardship scheme (ELS) was introduced to support small-scale environmental management projects.
112
How has the growth of agribusiness impacted rural landscapes in the UK?
Field sizes have increased, leading to habitat loss and reduced biodiversity due to the removal of hedgerows and natural habitats.
113
What are the various driving forces in agricultural landscape change?
Driving forces include farm practices, external power players like agribusiness, climate change, and policy.
114
What else has been done to try and improve food security?
The change in agricultural landscapes has been dramatic due to modern industrial farming methods and population pressures.
115
How has soybean farming affected biodiversity in Brazil?
Soybean expansion threatens biodiversity in the Cerrado ecoregion, with significant habitat loss and impacts on native species.
116
Why is there demand for soybean in Brazil?
Soybean is used in various commercial food products and is popular in Western diets as a low-calorie protein source.
117
Where has deforestation occurred to increase food production?
Deforestation in Brazil has increased due to rising demand for soybeans, particularly in the Cerrado savanna ecoregion.
118
How does deforestation threaten biodiversity?
Deforestation reduces natural habitats available to wildlife, negatively impacting biodiversity and agricultural processes.
119
What is meant by biodiversity?
Biodiversity refers to the variability among living organisms from all sources, including air, land, and water.
120
Why is deforestation used to increase food security?
Forested land is converted into agricultural land to meet the food demand from a growing population.
121
What land management solutions can be used to reduce salinisation?
Solutions include avoiding over-irrigation, good crop selection, rotating crops, and planting salt-tolerant crops.
122
Where has irrigation-induced salinisation occurred?
The Aral Sea in Asia has experienced salinisation due to over-irrigation, leading to a significant loss of fertility.
123
What are the 2 main causes of salinisation linked to irrigation?
1) Evaporation of irrigation water deposits salts in the soil. 2) Excessive withdrawal of groundwater leads to saline water infiltration.
124
How does salinisation occur naturally?
Salts naturally present in soils and water increase in concentration as plants absorb water but leave the salt behind.
125
How does salinisation occur?
Salinisation is a natural process often exacerbated by human activities, particularly irrigation.
126
Why is salinisation a problem for the environment?
Salinisation creates a toxic salt layer that inhibits water absorption by plants.
127
What is salinisation?
Salinisation is a form of land degradation characterized by an increase in soil salts, common in arid climates.
128
How do attempts to increase food security impact the physical environment?
They impact through irrigation and salinisation, deforestation, changing landscapes, and water quality from agrochemicals.
129
Give examples of this.
Social media influences dietary changes, leading to a shift from nutritious traditional diets to less balanced western diets.
130
Why does this cause food insecurity/cultural problems?
It shifts diets away from nutritious traditional foods, undermining traditional knowledge and skills.
131
How is globalisation a threat to food security?
Increased exposure to western lifestyles and foods has led to dietary changes in the Arctic, affecting health and nutrition.
132
How does this affect health?
Store-bought foods high in salt, sugar, and unhealthy fats contribute to rising rates of malnutrition and obesity.
133
What has this led to?
Indigenous people are turning to expensive store-bought foods, leading to food insecurity and health issues.
134
How do these contaminants affect the indigenous people?
Contaminants in animals lead to a decline in the safety and quality of wild resources, pushing indigenous people to alternative foods.
135
What is happening to the safety and quality of 'wild resources'?
They are in decline due to the presence of contaminants.
136
What are the social problems caused by turning to alternative store-bought foods?
Obesity, malnutrition, and health issues.
137
What economic problems arise from the decline of wild resources?
High food prices due to remoteness and low budgets due to low incomes and restricted job opportunities.
138
How do contaminants affect indigenous people in the Arctic?
They are exposed to toxins in their traditional diet, affecting human development, reproduction, hormone function, and immune systems.
139
What is one of the most contaminated species in the Arctic?
Polar bear.
140
What have research findings shown about the Inuit of Canada and Greenland?
They have higher levels of contaminants in their blood and breastmilk than people from southern regions.
141
How are contaminants passed through the food chain?
They bioaccumulate from plankton to fish to larger wildlife, and then to humans.
142
What are the main contaminants in the Arctic?
Heavy metals like mercury and lead, and persistent organic pollutants (POPs).
143
Why are food prices high in many Arctic regions for indigenous people?
They cannot grow their own produce and must import it, facing remoteness and limited transport.
144
How does economic vulnerability affect food security in the Arctic?
High food costs combined with low incomes lead to food insecurity.
145
What is the cost difference of food for a family of four between Southern and Northern Canada?
Southern Canada spends just over $1,000, while Northern Canada spends roughly $1,680.
146
How does climate change affect traditional food sources?
Polar bears are forced to scavenge, leading to a decline in their body mass and disrupting food supplies for other species.
147
How does climate change affect animal migration routes?
Species may migrate to colder areas, reducing availability for hunting.
148
How does climate change affect the hunting terrain?
Melting ice and permafrost create unsafe hunting conditions and longer travel routes.
149
What are the four threats to food security for indigenous people in the Arctic?
Climate change, high food cost & economic vulnerability, contamination, and globalization.
150
Where do Inuit people hunt for narwhals?
Qaanaaq, northern Greenland.
151
Where do Inuit people hunt mussels?
Wakeham Bay, Quebec, northern Canada.
152
Where do Inuit people hunt whales?
In Barrow, Alaska.
153
What foods do indigenous people hunt and eat?
Mussels, whales, seals, polar bears, bird eggs, caribou, and plant life including roots and berries.
154
What food production methods are used by indigenous people in the Arctic?
Hunting, herding, fishing, and gathering.
155
What is the vegetation like in the Arctic?
Dominated by low shrubs, lichens, and mosses, adapted to moisture-deficient conditions.
156
Why is food production difficult in the Arctic?
Temperatures below 0°C for 8 months limit photosynthesis and soil fertility.
157
What are the conditions like in the Arctic?
Extreme, with thick ice and snow cover, bitter cold, and frequent storms.
158
Where is the Arctic located?
Covers 14.5 million km², including the Arctic Ocean and parts of northern Alaska, Canada, Scandinavia, and Russia.
159
What is the food production extreme environment case study?
The Arctic.
160
How will the situation in the Arctic change in the future?
It will worsen due to population increases and more people living in hazardous areas.
161
What happened in the 2018 earthquake in Indonesia?
A magnitude 7.5 earthquake struck, causing 3000 deaths and displacing 200k people.
162
How do tectonic hazards affect food distribution?
They can disrupt transport links, making food distribution difficult.
163
How does ash affect crops?
Increased sulphur levels and lowered pH can prevent crops from surviving.
164
How does ash fall affect livestock?
It destroys pasture land and can cause flurosis if livestock consume contaminated ash.
165
What do tectonic hazards affect?
Food production and distribution.
166
Will the impact of El Niño worsen in the future?
Yes, due to climate change and ongoing food insecurity.
167
How does El Niño impact food security?
It causes wildfires and droughts in Australia and flooding in South America, disrupting yields.
168
What happens during El Niño?
Trade winds weaken, causing warmer water to shift and altering weather patterns.
169
What normally happens in the Pacific Ocean?
Trade winds blow warm water towards Australia, creating higher sea levels there.
170
What natural event affects the water supply?
El Niño.
171
How has Australia improved water security?
By implementing water extraction caps, withdrawing irrigation subsidies, and facilitating water trading.
172
Where has appropriate technology been used?
In Kenya for mulching and drip irrigation.
173
How does water scarcity affect food production?
Agriculture consumes 68% of water, and poor irrigation leads to significant losses.
174
How do extreme weather events affect food production?
They can destroy crops and infrastructure, disrupting growth and distribution.
175
What is the impact of food production on climate change?
Food production accounts for almost one third of greenhouse gas emissions.
176
What human threats to food security exist in the Sahel?
Population growth, deforestation, overgrazing, and land grabbing.
177
What are the physical threats to food security in the Sahel?
Climate change, droughts, and desertification.
178
What is a consequence of increasing deforestation due to population growth?
Increased water and wind erosion of soil and loss of organic matter.
## Footnote
Managed by afforestation projects.
179
What are the effects of overgrazing and overcultivation caused by population growth?
Soil does not have time to recover, leading to infertility and crop failure.
## Footnote
Managed by educating farmers in better methods, investment in irrigation systems, and diversification.
180
What is land grabbing and its impact?
Acquisitions for the UAE, China, and South Korea displace indigenous farmers, causing migration.
## Footnote
Managed by improving legal rights of farmers to land ownership.
181
What is a physical threat to food security in the Sahel?
Increased periodic drought.
## Footnote
Managed by irrigation and contour stone barriers to increase infiltration leading to groundwater recharge.
182
How does exposure to high winds affect food security?
It increases moisture loss from plants and soil erosion.
## Footnote
Managed by vegetation barriers.
183
What causes infertile soils in the Sahel?
Lack of vegetation leads to little deposition of organic litter in the soil.
## Footnote
Managed by planting nitrogen-fixing trees, referred to as the 're-greening of the Sahel'.
184
What is the impact of changes in surface albedo?
High albedo reflects insolation, causing temperatures to rise and reducing likelihood of rain.
## Footnote
Managed by re-greening projects like the FAO Acacia Project.
185
What is the significance of the FAO Acacia Project?
It provides Acacia seeds to Senegal, enhancing soil fertility and providing income to farmers.
## Footnote
The 'gum' produced has an international market and supports community development.
186
Where has desertification been experienced?
The Sahel, where nearly 50% of the land is agricultural and farming accounts for 50% of the GDP.
## Footnote
9.7 million people are estimated to be severely food insecure across the region.
187
What can be done to prevent desertification?
Implement water management, educate farmers, develop drought-resistant crops, and maintain vegetation cover.
## Footnote
Encourage crop rotation and diversify land use for alternative livelihoods.
188
What are the social and cultural impacts of desertification?
Forced migration due to farmland scarcity and hunger, increased male out-migration, and loss of traditional knowledge and skills.
## Footnote
This leads to falling yields.
