UPCAT General Science Flashcards
(375 cards)
1
Q
What is the suffix for alkane compounds?
A
-ane
2
Q
Define alkyl groups in alkanes.
A
Alkyl groups are side-chains derived by removing one hydrogen atom from alkanes.
3
Q
How are alkyl groups named?
A
By changing the -ane ending of the parent alkane to -yl.
4
Q
What do you do in step 1 of naming alkanes?
A
Locate the parent chain by finding the longest continuous chain.
5
Q
How do you handle two chains of equal length in naming alkanes?
A
Choose the one with more branch points as the parent chain.
6
Q
Explain step 2 in naming alkanes.
A
Number the carbon atoms in the parent chain for the lowest position numbers of substituents.
7
Q
What do you do in step 3 of naming alkanes?
A
Identify substituents and the carbon atoms they are attached to.
8
Q
How do you name a compound in step 4 of alkane naming?
A
Arrange substituents alphabetically with position numbers before the parent name.
9
Q
When do you use prefixes di-, tri-, tetra- in alkane naming?
A
When the same alkyl group occurs more than once as a substituent.
10
Q
How are prefixes such as cyclo, neo- treated in alphabetizing substituents?
A
They are included in alphabetizing; use hyphens to separate prefixes.
11
Q
What are the components of a nucleotide?
A
Nitrogenous base, sugar moiety, phosphate group
12
Q
Differentiate between monosaccharides and disaccharides.
A
Monosaccharides have one unit, disaccharides have two units of monosaccharide.
13
Q
Explain the role of cellulose in plants.
A
Cellulose provides a supporting framework for plants.
14
Q
What are scalar quantities in physics?
A
Quantities expressed by magnitude only, e.g., mass, time.
15
Q
Define vector quantities in physics.
A
Quantities expressed by magnitude and direction, e.g., force, velocity.
16
Q
What is a resultant vector?
A
The sum/difference of two or more vectors with the same effect.
17
Q
What is the main function of stomates in a leaf?
A
Stomates serve as entry points for carbon dioxide and exits for water vapor.
18
Q
What happens to guard cells when water moves out of them?
A
Guard cells become flaccid, and the stomal pore closes.
19
Q
How does a plant suffer if transpiration is faster than root water absorption?
A
Plant tissues suffer from water deficit, causing the plant to wilt.
20
Q
Define Photosynthesis using the given equation?
A
Photosynthesis is: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O -> C6H12O12 + 6 O2.
21
Q
Explain Respiration using the given equation.
A
Respiration is: C6H12O12 + 6 O2 -> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O.
22
Q
What is Plant Taxonomy and its key components?
A
Plant Taxonomy is the classification, nomenclature, and identification of plants based on hierarchical categories known as taxa.
23
Q
Describe the hierarchy of taxa in Plant Taxonomy.
A
Taxa are arranged hierarchically from species to genus to family and finally to the kingdom.
24
Q
What is the smallest taxonomic unit in Plant Taxonomy?
A
The smallest taxonomic unit is the species.
25
What is the scientific name of a plant composed of?
A plant's scientific name is a binomial, consisting of a genus name and a specific epithet.
26
What is Genetics and its main focus?
Genetics is the study of heredity and variation, focusing on traits passed down through generations.
27
Explain the process involved in heredity and variation according to Genetics.
Cell division plays a significant role in heredity and variation, especially in passing down genetic information.
28
Define Dominant Allele in Genetics terms.
Dominant Allele is an alternative trait that is expressed in the phenotype.
29
Explain the Law of Dominance in Genetics.
The Law of Dominance states that only dominant alleles are expressed in the phenotype.
30
What is law of Incomplete Dominance in Genetics?
The Law of Incomplete Dominance states that two alleles are incompletely expressed, resulting in a blended trait.
31
What is the genotype of the F1 progeny in complete dominance?
Heterozygous (Rr)
32
In complete dominance, what is the phenotype of the F1 progeny with the dominant allele R?
Round
33
Define complete dominance in terms of gene expression.
One allele completely masks the expression of the other.
34
Explain the genotypes of the parents involved in a testcross to determine F1 heterozygosity.
Homozygous recessive (rr) and heterozygous (Rr)
35
What is the genotypic ratio resulting from a testcross between F1 (Rr) and homozygous recessive (rr) parents?
1 Rr : 1 rr
36
In a dihybrid cross, how do gene pairs segregate during meiosis?
Independently of each other.
37
What ratio did Mendel observe in the F2 generation of his dihybrid cross?
9:3:3:1 (round yellow : wrinkled yellow : round green : wrinkled green)
38
What method is used to determine genotypic ratios in the F2 progeny?
Punnett Square or Checkerboard method.
39
Explain the molecular composition of chromosomes in terms of genes.
Chromosomes carry genes which are fragments of DNA.
40
What is the role of DNA in transferring biological information?
DNA transmits information from parent cells to daughter cells and between generations.
41
Describe the process of replication in terms of DNA molecules.
Replication creates two identical DNA molecules from a parent DNA.
42
What general processes does the central dogma of molecular biology consist of?
Replication, transcription, and translation.
43
How is information transferred from DNA to proteins?
Through transcription and translation processes.
44
What are the three components of the central dogma of molecular biology?
DNA, RNA, and Proteins.
45
What term describes changes in genetic materials that are heritable?
Mutation.
46
Define deletion in terms of genetic materials.
Refers to removal of a segment of base pairs.
47
What are the Group 1 elements known as?
Alkali metals
48
Which group includes elements like calcium and magnesium?
Group 2 - Alkaline earth metals
49
Which group contains elements such as chlorine and fluorine?
Group 17 - Halogens
50
What do periods represent in the periodic table?
Horizontal rows
51
What pattern or trend is repeated in elements belonging to a period?
Properties show a repeated trend in the next period
52
Which group forms ions with a +1 charge?
Group 1
53
What is the charge of ions formed by elements in Group 16?
-2
54
Which group typically forms ions with a +3 charge?
Group 13
55
Why do noble gases usually not form ions?
They are generally stable with full valence electron shells
56
How many elements are gases at room temperature?
11
57
Name the four elements that are liquids at 25°C.
Hg, Br, Ga, Cs
58
What is the expected state of Francium (Fr) if prepared in large quantities?
Liquid
59
Define atomic size or radius in terms of a period (left to right).
Decreasing
60
How does ionization energy change down a group (top to bottom)?
Decreasing
61
What property decreases as you move across a period from left to right?
Cation size
62
Describe the trend in metallic character down a group.
Increasing
63
What does electronegativity indicate as you move across a period?
Increases
64
Explain the concept of covalent radius.
Half the distance between identical atoms in a covalent bond
65
How is metallic radius defined in a solid metal?
Half the distance between atoms in contact in the crystalline solid
66
What is the definition of ionization energy?
Energy needed to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion
67
Define affinity for electrons in terms of an atom or ion.
Tendency to attract additional electrons
68
What does electronegativity measure in relation to shared electrons?
Attraction of an atom for shared electrons
69
How do metals typically react with oxygen gas?
Forming basic oxides in water
70
Give an example of a common binary covalent compound.
H2O (Water)
71
What is the naming rule for binary covalent compounds regarding metallic elements?
Name the more metallic element first
72
What are the three quantum numbers describing an electron's orbital?
The three quantum numbers are n, l, and ml.
73
How many electrons can an orbital hold and what must their spins be?
An orbital can hold 2 electrons with opposite spins.
74
What is the principal quantum number (n) and what positive values can it take?
The principal quantum number (n) represents the main energy level and can take values of 1, 2, 3, and so on.
75
How does the size of an orbital change as the principal quantum number (n) increases?
As n increases, the orbital becomes larger.
76
What is the azimuthal quantum number (l) and its possible values?
The azimuthal quantum number (l) relates to the shape of the orbital and ranges from 0 to n-1 for each n.
77
Explain the relation between l values and orbital shapes using the letter designations.
The values of l correspond to different orbital shapes: 0-s, 1-p, 2-d, 3-f.
78
What is the magnetic quantum number (ml) and its possible values?
The magnetic quantum number (ml) ranges from -l to l, including zero.
79
Describe the concept of degenerate orbitals.
Degenerate orbitals are orbitals that have the same energy levels.
80
What is the electron spin quantum number (ms) and its possible values?
The electron spin quantum number (ms) can be +1/2 or -1/2.
81
Explain the Pauli Exclusion Principle.
The Pauli Exclusion Principle states that no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of quantum numbers.
82
Define electronic configuration and ground state electronic configuration.
Electronic configuration describes how electrons are arranged in an atom, with ground state being the lowest energy arrangement.
83
What is the Aufbau Principle and how does it determine electron filling order?
The Aufbau Principle states that orbitals are filled in order of increasing energy, following the (n+l) rule.
84
Explain Hund's Rule of Multiplicity and its application in electron arrangement.
Hund's Rule states that electrons singly occupy degenerate orbitals before pairing, maximizing the number of like spins.
85
What are the key points to remember when writing electronic configurations?
Remember the Aufbau Principle and Hund's Rule, filling orbitals in order of increasing energy and maximizing like spins in degenerate orbitals.
86
Summarize Dobereiner's Law of Triads and its significance in early classifications.
Dobereiner's Law suggested that the average combining weight of elements in a triad was the central member's value.
87
Explain John Newlands' Law of Octaves and its limitations.
Newlands' Law stated that every eighth element had similar properties, although some positions were forced and didn't accommodate all elements.
88
Describe Meyer's and Mendeleev's contributions to the development of the periodic table.
Meyer's Atomic Volume Curve and Mendeleev's Periodic Law laid the groundwork for the modern periodic table by observing periodic trends and predicting new elements.
89
What is the Modern Periodic Law and how does it relate to elements?
The Modern Periodic Law states that the properties of elements are functions of their atomic numbers, guiding their arrangement in the periodic table.
90
Explain the concept of groups in the periodic table.
Groups in the periodic table are vertical columns where elements have similar properties.
91
What is the formula for displacement under constant velocity?
Δx = vt
92
Calculate the displacement when v = 20m/s and t = 2s.
Δx = 40m
93
Define Uniform Accelerated Motion.
Motion with constant acceleration.
94
What are the variables used in Uniform Accelerated Motion?
Vf, Vo, a, t, X, Xo
95
Find the acceleration of a cyclist given Vf = 4m/s, Vo = 2m/s, and t = 2s.
Acceleration = 1 m/s^2
96
Explain Freefall motion.
One-dimensional motion influenced only by gravity (-9.8m/s^2).
97
What is the gravitational acceleration in Freefall?
g = -9.8m/s^2
98
Calculate the velocity of a ball after 5 seconds of freefall.
Vf = -49m/s
99
How far does a mango fall after 0.5 seconds of freefall?
ΔY = -19.6m
100
Define Projectile Motion.
Curved motion influenced by gravity, a combination of uniform motion, and freefall.
101
What are the conditions of Projectile Motion throughout the flight?
Neglecting air resistance, horizontal and vertical motions are independent, and more.
102
Where is a stone after 2 seconds with Vx = 10m/s, dy = 200m?
Find dx after 2s.
103
When does a stone hit the ground after being thrown from a tower?
Time to hit the ground.
104
What is the stone's speed just before hitting the ground?
Speed before impact.
105
What distinguishes plant cells from fungal and animal cells?
Presence of cellulosic cell walls, plastids, and large vacuoles.
106
What are ergastic substances found in plant cells?
Non-living inclusions like crystals and starch.
107
Name the three major plant cell types.
Parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma.
108
Describe the characteristics of parenchyma cells.
Usually large, thin-walled, and extremely variable in shape.
109
What differentiates collenchyma cells from other plant cell types?
Primary cell walls thickened irregularly by cellulose and pectin.
110
How are sclerenchyma cells characterized?
Thick primary cell wall with heavy lignified depositions.
111
What are meristematic tissues composed of?
Immature cells and regions of active cell division.
112
Name the three types of permanent plant tissues.
Epidermis, periderm, and vascular tissues (xylem and phloem).
113
What is the function of xylem in plants?
Transport water and minerals upward from the roots.
114
What is the primary function of phloem in plants?
Transport food materials throughout the plant.
115
Describe the characteristics of a root in plants.
Typically underground, serves for anchorage, and water absorption.
116
Differentiate between fibrous and taproot systems.
Fibrous is found in monocotyledons, taproot in dicotyledons.
117
What distinguishes a stem by the presence of?
Nodes where leaves are born and internodes between nodes.
118
What functions do leaves serve in a plant?
Photosynthesis and transpiration.
119
What gives leaves their green color?
Chlorophyll.
120
What is the main function of a flower according to the text?
Representing the reproductive structure of an angiosperm.
121
Describe what a fruit is in the context of a plant.
Ripened ovary protecting and dispersing seeds.
122
What processes precede fruit development in plants?
Pollination and fertilization.
123
Where does photosynthesis primarily take place in plants?
Chloroplasts in the leaves.
124
Explain the concept of transpiration in plants.
Loss of water in vapor form through stomates on leaf surfaces.
125
Define erosion and lithification.
Erosion is the wearing away of the earth's surface. Lithification is the process of turning sediment into rock.
126
Explain the difference between weather and climate.
Weather refers to daily atmospheric conditions, while climate describes long-term temperature and precipitation patterns.
127
List the gases found in the atmosphere and their percentages.
Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), Other gases (water vapor, CO2, O3)
128
Describe the layers of the atmosphere and their characteristics.
Troposphere (lowest temperature, where life exists), Stratosphere (contains ozone), Mesosphere, Ionosphere, Exosphere
129
What causes the movement of air known as winds?
Uneven temperature and pressure in the atmosphere.
130
Explain the definition of Ecology.
Ecology is the study of how living things interact with their environment.
131
Differentiate between biotic and abiotic ecological factors.
Biotic factors are living, while abiotic factors are nonliving but essential to organisms.
132
Define Population, Community, Ecosystem, and Biomes.
Population - group of same species, Community - different populations together, Ecosystem - living things interacting with environment, Biomes - area with climate-based communities.
133
Discuss the probable origin of the solar system according to the Nebular Theory.
The solar system originated from a rotating gas and dust cloud composed of hydrogen, helium, and heavier elements.
134
Explain the differences between the Ptolemaic Theory and the Copernican Theory.
Ptolemaic Theory: Earth stationary, planets revolve around it. Copernican Theory: Sun at center, planets revolve around the sun.
135
Name and describe the characteristics of the different planets in our solar system.
Mercury - rocky, cratered; Venus - thick cloud cover; Earth - liquid water, life; Mars - polar ice caps, dominant volcanoes; Jupiter - Great red spots; Saturn - many rings; Uranus - Rotates on the side; Neptune - Great dark spot.
136
Differentiate between asteroids, meteoroids, and comets.
Asteroids - objects smaller than planets. Meteoroids - smaller than asteroids. Comets - frozen materials and rocky bits.
137
Define Inertia.
Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist a change in its state of motion.
138
What is the formula for momentum?
p = mv, where p is momentum, m is mass, and v is velocity.
139
State Newton's Third Law of Motion.
Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object exerts an equal and opposite force.
140
Explain the Law of Conservation of Momentum.
The total momentum of an isolated system remains constant if no external forces act on it.
141
What determines the weight of an object?
Weight is the force acted upon an object due to gravity.
142
What is impulse in physics?
Impulse is a vector quantity equal to the product of force and time and is associated with a change in momentum.
143
State Newton's Second Law of Motion.
The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass.
144
What is the naming convention for oxyacids ending in -ate?
Name of the form ic acid (e.g. sulfate -> sulfuric acid).
145
Provide an example of an oxyanion ending in -ite and its corresponding oxyacid name.
Example: SO32- sulfite, oxyacid: H2SO3 sulfurous acid.
146
List the names of some common polyatomic anions.
Including Hydroxide, Nitrate, Peroxide, Nitrite, Cyanide, Acetate, Azide, Chromate.
147
State the stoichiometry concept for balancing chemical equations.
Use correct formulas, adjust coefficients (not subscripts), balance elemental forms, H, and O last.
148
Define Stoichiometry in chemical reactions.
Quantitative study of reactants and products in a chemical reaction.
149
Explain the Mole Method in stoichiometry.
Interpret stoichiometric coefficients as the number of moles of each substance.
150
How is molar mass defined in chemistry?
Mass in grams of 1 mole of a substance, numerically equal to atomic mass.
151
State the ways of expressing the mole in chemistry.
By number of particles, mass (using molar mass), by volume (using molar volume at STP).
152
What is the percentage composition of a compound based on weight?
Percentage of each element's weight in 100g of the compound.
153
Define Empirical Formula in chemistry.
Formula with lowest whole number subscripts showing compound composition.
154
Define molarity.
Molarity is moles of solute per liter of solution.
155
What is the formula for mass percent or weight percent?
(g solute/g solution) x 100%
156
Explain the concept of supersaturation in solutions.
Supersaturation occurs when a solution contains more solute than it should at a given temperature.
157
What is the formula for mole fraction?
Mole fraction, X = moles of a component / moles of solution = moles solute / (moles of solute + moles of solvent)
158
How is molality defined?
Molality (m) is moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
159
How does pressure affect the solubility of gases in liquids?
Higher pressure leads to higher solubility of gases in liquids.
160
Explain the relationship between temperature and solubility for solid solutes and liquid solvents.
For endothermic dissolutions, higher temperature increases solubility; for exothermic dissolutions, higher temperature decreases solubility.
161
Describe how dilution is achieved in solutions.
Dilution is prepared by adding more solvent to a concentrated solution, following the formula M1V1 = M2V2.
162
Define colligative properties of solutions.
Colligative properties depend on the amount of solute, not the nature of the solute, including vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure.
163
What is osmotic pressure, and how is it calculated?
Osmotic pressure is the pressure required to stop osmosis, calculated as π = MRT (where π = osmotic pressure, M = molarity, R = gas constant, T = temperature in Kelvin).
164
According to the Arrhenius definition, how are acids and bases defined?
Acids increase [H+] and bases increase [OH-] when dissolved in water.
165
Explain the Bronsted-Lowry definitions of acids and bases.
Acids are proton donors, bases are proton acceptors according to Bronsted-Lowry definitions.
166
What are monoprotic and polyprotic acids?
Monoprotic acids donate 1 mole of H+ per mole of acid, whereas polyprotic acids donate more than 1 mole of H+ per mole of acid.
167
Define Scientific Method step 3.
Formulating a hypothesis.
168
What is the Independent Variable?
Variable changed by the experimenter.
169
Explain Control group.
Opposite of Experimental group.
170
What is the purpose of a hypothesis?
To propose the answer to a scientific question.
171
Describe a Scientific law.
A description of a natural occurrence observed multiple times.
172
Explain the purpose of a Model in science.
Help visualize occurrences and unobservable objects.
173
What system is used in scientific measurements?
Metric system.
174
What does SI stand for in measurements?
International System of Units.
175
How do you calculate significant digits in a measurement?
Sum of certain digits + one certain digit (0 or 5).
176
What are the base quantities in SI units?
Mass, Length, Time, Amount of Substance, Temperature, Electric current, Luminous intensity.
177
Explain Lithosphere.
Solid part and largest portion of the earth.
178
Define Hydrosphere.
Liquid part covering about 71% of the earth's surface.
179
Describe Metamorphic rocks.
Rocks changed due to heat and pressure.
180
What are Sedimentary rocks formed from?
Deposited fragments or particles of other rocks.
181
What is the term for the mass of blastomeres forming a hollow fluid-filled cavity?
Blastocoel
182
In frogs, what are the large cells below the blastocoel called?
Macromeres
183
What are the two distinct cell types in a blastocyst?
Inner cell mass and trophoblast
184
What do the extra-embryonic membranes amnion and chorion arise from?
Trophoblast
185
What term describes the stage of embryonic development where extensive cell movements rearrange cells?
Gastrulation
186
Which germ layer gives rise to the organs of the circulatory system?
Mesoderm
187
What does the ectoderm give rise to in the developing embryo?
Epidermis, sense organs, and nervous system
188
Which germ layer gives rise to the organs of the digestive system?
Endoderm
189
What is a key event during neurulation?
Formation of the neural tube
190
What do the early stages of the brain formation involve?
Neural tube and three brain regions
191
What is the primary concept in ecology and the most important functional unit?
Ecosystem
192
What does ecology predominantly study in relation to organisms?
Relationship with the environment
193
Ecosystems include which elements that influence one another?
Plants, animals, and physical environment
194
What happens during a solar eclipse?
The moon covers the sun from the Earth's view.
195
Describe a lunar eclipse.
The sun covers the moon during a lunar eclipse.
196
Define scientific method.
A systematic process of gaining information.
197
Explain the role of the independent variable in an experiment.
It is the variable changed by the experimenter.
198
What is weathering?
A process that breaks rocks into smaller pieces.
199
Describe the greenhouse effect.
Process where infrared radiation is absorbed by water vapor and carbon dioxide.
200
What are metamorphic rocks?
Rocks that change constitution due to pressure and heat.
201
Explain the concept of hypothesis.
An educated guess made for scientific investigation.
202
Define control group in an experiment.
Sample group that doesn't receive treatment.
203
Calculate the equivalent volume of 10,000 L of air in cubic millimeters.
10,000,000,000 cubic millimeters.
204
How many grams of tar does a person consume in a week if they smoke 20 cigarette sticks containing 40 mg tar each?
5.6 grams of tar.
205
What is the distance in kilometers to the nearest star to the sun if it is 2.52 x 10^13 miles away?
4.05 x 10^13 kilometers.
206
Differentiate between revolution and rotation.
Rotation is spinning on an axis, while revolution is orbiting.
207
Explain the lack of atmosphere on Mercury compared to Earth.
Mercury's lack of atmosphere may be due to its small size.
208
Define biology.
The study of living systems and life processes.
209
Define standard cell potential.
Standard cell potential is the voltage associated with a cell under standard conditions.
210
Explain the relationship between energy, charge, and cell potential.
Energy (J) = charge (C) x cell potential (V)
211
What happens when E0 cell is positive in a reaction?
A positive E0 cell indicates a spontaneous process.
212
How are reactants and products affected in terms of ΔGo at equilibrium?
ΔGo = 0 at equilibrium
213
State the relationship between reduction potential and tendency to undergo reduction.
Higher reduction potential implies a higher tendency to undergo reduction.
214
Explain the function of an electrolytic cell.
An electrolytic cell uses electrical energy to cause a non-spontaneous chemical reaction.
215
What occurs at the anode in an electrolytic cell?
Oxidation occurs at the anode.
216
Describe the process at the cathode in an electrolytic cell.
Reduction occurs at the cathode.
217
Explain the flow of electrons in an electrolytic cell.
Electrons flow from the anode to the cathode.
218
Define corrosion in the context of chemistry.
Corrosion is the conversion of metal to its metal oxide.
219
What is the study of carbon and its compounds known as?
Organic chemistry.
220
Differentiate between alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes based on their bonds.
Alkanes have all single bonds, alkenes have a double bond, and alkynes have a triple bond.
221
What distinguishes aromatic compounds from aliphatic compounds?
Aromatic compounds are cyclic derivatives while aliphatic compounds are open-chain.
222
Name three oxygen-containing organic compounds.
Alcohols, ethers, and carboxylic acids.
223
Explain the IUPAC system in naming alkanes.
The IUPAC system names alkanes based on the number of carbon atoms in the chain.
224
What does the term 'HYPERVALENT ATOM' refer to?
An atom that could accommodate more than the octet due to low-lying d-orbitals.
225
Define 'Resonance' in the context of Lewis Structures.
The use of two or more Lewis Structures to represent a molecule or ion.
226
How is the 'true structure' of a molecule determined in Resonance?
It is the average or the 'hybrid' of the resonance structures.
227
What is 'Formal Charge' used for in evaluating Lewis structures?
To evaluate non-equivalent Lewis structures by comparing valence electrons, nonbonding electrons, and bonds.
228
Explain the concept of 'VSEPR Theory'.
It determines molecular geometry by minimizing electron pair repulsions.
229
What are the steps for using the VSEPR Theory?
1. Draw Lewis structure, 2. Count electron pairs, 3. Arrange to minimize repulsions, 4. Determine positions of atoms.
230
What is the governing principle behind the 'Geometry or Shape of Molecules'?
It is governed by the VSEPR Theory which minimizes electron pair repulsions.
231
What is the structure of a molecule with the notation 'AX2E2'?
It is a Bent or V-shaped molecule which is polar.
232
When do molecules exhibit bond polarity?
Bond polarity results from a net dipole moment in a molecule.
233
What type of forces are Interactions among molecules according to IMFA?
Intermolecular Forces of Attraction (IMFA) are interactions between molecules (not within).
234
Explain 'London Dispersion Forces' in terms of intermolecular forces.
They are relatively weak forces among noble gas atoms and non-polar molecules.
235
What is 'Polarizability' in the context of London Dispersion Forces?
It is the ease with which a dipole can be induced in an atom or molecule.
236
Describe 'Dipole-dipole Forces'.
They are exhibited by polar molecules and are stronger than London Dispersion Forces.
237
Define Kw in terms of [H3O+] and [OH-].
[H3O+] [OH-] = 1.0 x 10^-14
238
What is the formula for calculating pH?
pH = -log [H3O+]
239
List some examples of strong acids.
HCl, HBr, HI, HClO4, HNO3
240
According to Lewis's definition, what is an acid?
A substance that can accept an e- pair
241
Explain the concept of Titration.
Gradually adding one solution to another until complete reaction.
242
What is the Henderson-Hasselbach equation used for?
Calculating pH of a buffer solution
243
Describe Chemical Equilibrium.
State where forward and backward reactions occur at equal rates.
244
What does the equilibrium constant Keq indicate?
The extent of a chemical reaction at equilibrium
245
State Le Chatelier's Principle.
Equilibrium shifts to counteract imposed changes.
246
How does adding a reactant affect equilibrium?
Increases concentration, shifts equilibrium
247
Define a compound in chemistry.
A compound is two or more elements chemically combined in a definite proportion.
248
What are the structural units in ionic compounds?
The structural units in ionic compounds are cations and anions.
249
Explain the electrical conductivity of ionic compounds in their solid state.
In their solid state, ionic compounds are non-conducting.
250
Describe the properties of covalent molecular compounds.
Covalent molecular compounds have low melting points and are non-conducting.
251
What type of structural units occupy the lattice points in covalent network substances?
Covalent network substances have atoms as structural units.
252
Explain the melting point of covalent network substances.
Covalent network substances have very high melting points.
253
Differentiate between homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures.
Homogeneous mixtures are uniform, while heterogeneous mixtures have non-uniform properties.
254
What are the three physical states of matter?
The three physical states of matter are solid, liquid, and gas.
255
Define extensive properties of matter.
Extensive properties depend on the amount of material observed.
256
Explain the concept of intrinsic properties of matter.
Intrinsic properties are inherent to the substance and do not change.
257
What are physical properties of matter?
Physical properties are characteristics observed without changing identity or composition.
258
Give an example of a chemical change.
An example of a chemical change is the rusting of iron.
259
What types of chemical reactions include the formation of a bigger compound?
Synthesis/combination reactions involve formation of a bigger compound.
260
Describe a physical change in matter.
A physical change involves a change in phase or state without changing composition.
261
How does a system at equilibrium respond to the addition of a component?
Shift away from the added component.
262
What happens when a reactant or product is removed from a system at equilibrium?
The system will shift toward the removed component.
263
What effect does changing the volume of a gaseous system have on the system?
The system responds by reducing its own volume, decreasing the total number of gaseous molecules.
264
What is the effect of adding an inert gas to a gaseous system at constant volume?
Increases total pressure without affecting concentrations or partial pressures of reactants or products.
265
How does the equilibrium shift in response to added energy (heat)?
Shifts to the direction which consumes the added energy.
266
What is the role of a catalyst in a chemical reaction?
Speeds up both forward and backward reactions without changing the equilibrium amounts.
267
What is activation energy?
The threshold energy that must be overcome to produce a chemical reaction.
268
According to the Law of Thermodynamics, what happens to energy in a system?
Energy can be converted from one form to another but not created nor destroyed.
269
What occurs in a spontaneous process according to the Second Law of Thermodynamics?
There is always an increase in the entropy (disorder) of the universe.
270
What can a ΔG value of less than 0 represent in a process?
The process is spontaneous.
271
How should you waft fumes toward your nose for safety?
With a cupped hand
272
What is the recommended method for adding concentrated acid to water?
Always add the acid to the water with stirring.
273
How should you read a colorless liquid's meniscus?
Read the lower meniscus at eye level.
274
When does a measurement have trailing zeros as significant digits?
Final zeros after a decimal point.
275
How many significant figures does 706.3 mm have?
4 significant figures.
276
What type of numbers have an unlimited number of significant figures?
Exact numbers.
277
What must be done with the sum or difference in addition and subtraction?
Should have the same decimal places as the least precise number.
278
In multiplication and division, what determines the number of significant figures in the result?
The factor with the least number of significant figures.
279
How should numbers be rounded off when exceeding significant figures?
Round off to the proper number following specific rules.
280
What does accuracy measure in chemistry?
Refers to the nearness of a value to the actual value.
281
How is precision measured in the context of chemistry?
By indication of the agreement among different measurements.
282
Define matter in scientific terms.
Anything that has mass, occupies space, and has inertia.
283
What is a pure substance?
Homogeneous matter with fixed composition and distinct properties.
284
What is a pure substance composed of only one type of atom?
Element.
285
What is the atomic number Z defined as?
Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
286
Define isotopes.
Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
287
Explain the concept of atomic mass for an element.
Weighted average of atomic masses of naturally occurring isotopes.
288
What is the difference between cations and anions?
Cations lost electrons equal to the charge, anions gained electrons equal to the charge.
289
According to the odd-even rule, what makes a nuclide more likely to be stable?
An even number of neutrons and protons.
290
What are the magic numbers in terms of stability of nuclides?
Specific numbers of protons or neutrons making isotopes more stable.
291
Explain the concept of half-life in nuclear chemistry.
The time required for half of radioactive nuclei in a sample to undergo decay.
292
Describe the process of fusion in nuclear chemistry.
Combining nuclei of lighter elements to form heavier nuclei.
293
What characterizes gamma emission in radioactive decay?
High-energy photons emitted, with no change in mass or atomic number of the nucleus.
294
Who suggested that a magnetic field affects a cathode ray?
Thomson
295
What did Thomson's experiment suggest about atoms?
An arrangement of positive and negative charges
296
What did Thomson measure the charge to mass ratio of the electron to be?
-1.76 x 10^8 C/g
297
What did Robert Millikan determine the charge of an electron to be?
-1.6 x 10^-19 C
298
According to Rutherford's model, where is most of the mass and all the positive charges located in an atom?
Centered in the nucleus
299
Who identified the positively charged particle and named it the proton?
Goldstein
300
According to Bohr's model of the atom, how do electrons move around the nucleus?
In certain circular orbits
301
According to the Quantum Model, in what way is the energy of an electron quantized?
Energy levels are discrete
302
What principle states a limitation on our knowledge of a particle's position and momentum?
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
303
What is the primary characteristic used to describe a wave's behavior?
Wavelength
304
Define atomic spectra.
Discontinuous spectra with limited colored lines specific to elements
305
What does each element have that serves as its unique atomic fingerprint?
Distinctive line spectrum
306
Define Specific Heat Capacity (Cp).
The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1g of a substance by 1°C.
307
What is the formula for heat capacity (S)?
S = m * Cp, where S is heat capacity, m is mass, and Cp is specific heat capacity.
308
Explain the equation for calculating the amount of heat, Q.
Q = m * Cp * ΔT, where Q is heat, m is mass, Cp is specific heat capacity, and ΔT is temperature change.
309
How do you determine if a process is endothermic based on Q?
If Q is positive, the process is endothermic.
310
What is the definition of a calorimeter?
A closed container used to measure heat changes.
311
What happens in the Anode of an Electrochemical Cell?
Oxidation occurs at the Anode.
312
Explain the concept of Disproportionation Reaction.
It involves the same substance being both oxidized and reduced in a reaction.
313
Define Oxidizing Agent (Oxidant).
The Oxidizing Agent accepts electrons in a redox reaction.
314
What is the definition of Oxidation State?
A concept to track electrons in redox reactions following specific rules.
315
Describe the role of the Cathode in an Electrochemical Cell.
Reduction occurs at the Cathode.
316
Define displacement.
Displacement is the change in position of an object, representing the straight line path between starting and end points.
317
What is the difference between distance and displacement?
Distance is the total path length traveled by a body, while displacement is the change in position of an object.
318
Explain the Pythagorean Theorem in the context of vectors.
In vectors acting at right angles, the Pythagorean Theorem is used to find the resultant vector by mathematically adding the components.
319
Describe the Component Method in vector addition.
The Component Method involves adding x and y components of vectors acting on different directions to find the resultant vector.
320
What is uniform motion? Provide an equation to represent it.
Uniform motion is motion with constant velocity represented by the equation Δx = vt, where Δx is displacement, v is velocity, and t is time.
321
Explain the concept of speed and velocity.
Speed is a measure of how fast an object travels, while velocity is the rate of motion with direction.
322
Define acceleration.
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity over time.
323
What organelle is known as the 'powerhouse of the cell'?
Mitochondrion
324
Which organelle serves as the site of photosynthesis in plants and algae?
Chloroplast
325
What is the primary function of ribosomes in a cell?
Protein synthesis
326
What does the Endoplasmic Reticulum serve as in a cell?
Channels for material transport
327
What is the main function of the Golgi apparatus in cellular processes?
Selection and packaging of cellular materials
328
What is the 'suicidal bag' organelle in a cell called?
Lysosome
329
Define diffusion in cell transport.
Movement from high to low concentration
330
What theory states that all living things are made up of cells?
Cell Theory
331
What molecules serve as sources of building materials in cells?
Proteins
332
What is the function of centrioles in dividing cells?
Cytokinetic purposes
333
Describe mitosis in cell reproduction.
Division of somatic cells
334
Explain the concept of osmosis.
Diffusion of molecules across permeable membrane
335
What are the building blocks of fats/lipids?
Fatty acids and glycerol
336
How do prokaryotic cells differ from eukaryotic cells?
Lack membrane-bound organelles
337
What do cells require for active transport?
Expenditure of energy
338
How are ionic compounds named?
Write the name of the cation first, followed by the name of the anion.
339
In naming ionic compounds, what prefixes are not used?
Prefixes are not used to indicate the number of ions present.
340
What is the Stock System of Nomenclature used for?
To indicate the charge of the cation in ionic compounds.
341
What are hydrates in the context of ionic compounds?
They are compounds containing water molecules along with ions.
342
How are hydrates named differently from other ionic compounds?
The name includes 'hydrate' with a Greek prefix for water molecules.
343
What is the CROSS-OVER RULE in writing formulas of ionic compounds?
Subscripts are chosen to make the net charge zero.
344
How are binary acids named?
As hydro ____ic acid, replacing the stem of the nonmetal.
345
What differentiates naming conventions of HF in solution and pure HF?
In solution: hydrofluoric acid; pure: hydrogen fluoride.
346
How are oxyacids derived from oxyanions named?
The name is derived from oxyanion name with a change in suffix.
347
Define predation.
Predation is a relation where the predator benefits and the prey is harmed.
348
What are the three components of a food chain?
Producers, consumers, and decomposers.
349
Explain Liebig's Law of Minimum.
It states growth depends on the least available nutrient.
350
What does Shellford's Law of Tolerance state?
Organisms can live within a range of conditions.
351
What is the main focus of chemistry?
Studying matter, its properties, structure, and changes.
352
Name the five branches of chemistry.
Analytical, physical, inorganic, organic, biochemistry.
353
What is the scientific method?
A systematic approach in investigating nature.
354
Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative observations.
Qualitative is general; quantitative involves measurements.
355
What is a hypothesis?
An educated guess to explain an observation.
356
Explain the purpose of experimentation in the scientific method.
To test if the hypothesis is the problem's answer.
357
Define empirical formula.
Empirical formula gives the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound.
358
Explain the concept of molecular formula using an example.
Molecular formula provides the actual number of each element in a molecule. Example: Glucose - C6H12O6.
359
Define chemical stoichiometry.
Chemical stoichiometry is the quantitative relationship between reactants and products in a reaction.
360
What is percent yield in a chemical reaction?
Percent yield is the actual amount of product obtained compared to the theoretical amount, expressed as a percentage.
361
Explain the concept of limiting reactant.
Limiting reactant is the reactant that gets fully consumed and determines the maximum amount of product formed.
362
What is a chemical bond?
A chemical bond is the force that holds atoms together in a molecule.
363
Define bond length in a covalent bond.
Bond length is the distance between the nuclei of two covalently bonded atoms.
364
Differentiate between polar and nonpolar covalent bonds.
Polar covalent bonds have unequal electron sharing, while nonpolar covalent bonds share electrons equally.
365
What is an ionic bond?
Ionic bond involves the transfer of electrons from a metal to a nonmetal forming ions.
366
Explain the concept of Lewis structure.
Lewis structure uses electron dot symbols to represent atoms, molecules, or ions based on the octet rule.
367
Define collision.
Collision - any string interaction between two bodies that lasts a relatively short time.
368
What are the two types of collision?
Elastic and inelastic collision.
369
Explain elastic collision.
After the collision, the objects are still separated from each other.
370
Describe inelastic collision.
After the collision, the objects move as one unit.
371
Define work and provide the formula for it.
Formula: W = F * Δx.
372
When does a force do no work?
A force does no work if it is perpendicular to the displacement.
373
What is the formula for gravitational potential energy?
PE = m * g * h
374
Explain elastic potential energy.
Energy stored on an elastic material due to its stretching or compressing.
375
What is the formula for kinetic energy?
KE = 0.5 * m * v^2
