UPDATED SS FLASHCARDS
MC EXAM (154 cards)
1
Q
Define the sociological imagination and who coined the term.
A
The sociological imagination, coined by C. Wright Mills, distinguishes between private troubles (individual) and public issues (societal).
2
Q
Give an example that illustrates the difference between a private trouble and a public issue.
A
One person unemployed = private trouble; three million unemployed = public issue
3
Q
Define social construction.
A
Society and its norms are not fixed; they are created and change over time.
4
Q
How does language play a role in shaping reality, according to the text?
A
Language plays a key role in shaping reality (e.g., ‘child abuse’ as a concept evolved over time).
5
Q
Name the two major sociological perspectives related to social structure and systems.
A
Functionalism and Conflict Theory.
6
Q
Briefly explain Functionalism, and who is associated with it.
A
Society operates like a system where each part has a function; associated with Durkheim.
7
Q
Briefly explain Conflict Theory, and who is associated with it.
A
Society is shaped by power struggles between different groups; associated with Marx.
8
Q
Define culture in a sociological context.
A
Culture includes beliefs, values, norms, customs, and language.
9
Q
Explain the agency vs. structure debate.
A
Are people shaped by society (structure) or do they actively shape society (agency)? Agency: Individuals make choices within the constraints of society.
9
Q
Define socialisation.
A
Learning societal norms from birth to adulthood.
10
Q
How is identity shaped, according to the text?
A
Shaped by social influences such as family, media, education.
11
Q
What does sociology examine as politics and critical theory?
A
Examines power structures and inequalities.
12
Q
What is a key aspect of feminist theory?
A
How gender shapes societal experiences.
13
Q
What is a key argument of postmodernism?
A
Questions the idea of absolute truths and argues that society is fragmented and identity is fluid.
14
Q
In what century did sociology originate and why?
A
18th-century Europe in response to industrialisation and urbanisation.
15
Q
Describe the key ideas of The Enlightenment.
A
Humans have reason, systematic application of reason helps understand the world, humans are perfectible.
16
Q
What shift occurred during the Enlightenment?
A
Shift from seeing the world as controlled by divine will to understanding natural laws
17
Q
What concepts emerged during the Enlightenment that influenced government?
A
Ideas of citizenship and democracy.
18
Q
What are some examples of modern issues in sociology?
A
Globalisation, colonialism & postcolonialism, digital society & surveillance.
19
Q
How does the text define globalisation?
A
Increased global connectivity in economy, culture, and politics.
20
Q
What is sociology’s aim?
A
To understand society’s structures and processes at different historical moments
21
Q
Why did early sociologists emerge?
A
Responded to rapid social change (e.g., industrialisation, political revolutions).
22
Q
What is a limitation of classical sociology?
A
Largely based on the works of white European males.
23
Q
Who coined the term sociology and when?
A
Auguste Comte in 1839.
24
Name three major influences on the development of sociology.
The Enlightenment, The French Revolution, The Industrial Revolution, Global trade and colonisation.
25
According to Auguste Comte, what are the three stages of societal evolution?
Theological, Metaphysical, Scientific (positivism).
26
What is positivism, according to Comte?
Society is studied through empirical data.
27
How did Herbert Spencer view society?
As a biological organism.
28
What phrase did Herbert Spencer coin?
"Survival of the fittest".
29
What are the two main classes in society, according to Karl Marx?
Bourgeoisie (capitalists) and Proletariat (workers).
30
Define alienation, according to Marx.
Workers become disconnected from their labour and each other.
31
What are social facts, according to Emile Durkheim?
Laws, traditions, economy that shape human behaviour.
32
What are the two types of solidarity, according to Durkheim?
Mechanical solidarity (traditional societies) and Organic solidarity (modern societies).
33
Define anomie, and who is associated with it.
A state of normlessness caused by rapid social change; associated with Durkheim
34
What are the three components of social stratification, according to Max Weber?
Class (economic position), Status (prestige/respect), Party (political power).
35
What did Weber warn against regarding rationalisation?
Bureaucratic efficiency could lead to a "disenchanted" world.
36
What is symbolic interactionism, and who is associated with it?
How people create social meaning through interactions; associated with Georg Simmel.
37
What did Harriet Martineau study?
Women’s oppression, slavery, and social inequalities.
38
According to Raewyn Connell, what shaped sociology?
Imperialism and Eurocentrism.
39
According to Durkheim, how are we socialised?
We are socialized into ways of thinking, feeling, and acting and social structures shape our behaviors, desires, and thoughts.
40
What is a central critique of Standpoint Theory regarding knowledge?
Critiques the idea that knowledge is universal, objective, and neutral.
41
What is Donna Haraway’s "God Trick?"
The false belief that knowledge can come from an all-seeing, neutral perspective.
42
When was Standpoint Theory developed?
1970s and 1980s
43
Whose perspectives did dominant Western knowledge traditions reflect?
Wealthy, white, European men
44
What are the key claims of Standpoint Theory regarding knowledge production?
1. Knowledge is socially situated – influenced by race, gender, class, and other identities.
2. Marginalized groups produce unique knowledge – providing critiques of dominant ideologies.
3. Political engagement is essential – research should actively challenge power.
45
What does Standpoint Theory say about objectivity?
Rejects Objectivity – Knowledge is shaped by one’s social position
46
What is the significance of social position in knowledge production?
Social position matters (e.g. class, race, gender, sexuality). Knowledges of people from other groups are marginalised, discredited, silenced, minimised or ignored.
47
How does Standpoint Theory explain the differing experiences of enslaved people and enslavers?
The enslaved and enslavers experienced slavery differently. White scholars historically justified slavery with racial pseudo-science.
48
What was the historical perspective on women and hysteria?
Women’s reproductive systems were used to justify their exclusion from education and politics. Women were determined to be hysterical and less rational
49
According to Standpoint Theory, how is knowledge a political project?
Dominant knowledge aligns with powerful groups
50
Give an example of how different perspectives shape historical narratives, using the Australian History Wars.
Australian History Wars: European perspective = Peaceful settlement; Indigenous perspective = Colonisation, dispossession, and genocide
51
What is the "Study Up" approach, and who advocated for it?
Critically examine powerful institutions and their role in shaping knowledge; advocated by Dorothy Smith
52
What is the "Bias Paradox" critique of Standpoint Theory?
Risks reinforcing the same biases it critiques
53
What is the "Essentialism" critique of Standpoint Theory?
Assumes all members of an oppressed group have the same standpoint.
54
What is the "Relativism" critique of Standpoint Theory?
Challenges determining what is "true" if all knowledge is socially constructed
55
How does Sandra Harding describe feminist standpoint theory's impact?
Challenges traditional science and philosophy for ignoring power structures. Draws from Marxism, arguing that knowledge is shaped by class struggle. Influences broader movements (e.g., race, disability, and LGBTQ+ justice)
56
Who coined the term intersectionality? What is intersectionality?
Kimberlé Crenshaw. Explores how multiple forms of oppression intersect (e.g., race, gender, class).
57
According to Crenshaw, what are the limitations of mainstream feminism and antiracist movements?
Feminism often centres white women’s experiences, while antiracist movements focus on men of colour, leaving women of colour overlooked
58
What is structural intersectionality? Give an example.
Examines how institutions disproportionately disadvantage women of colour. Undocumented women may avoid reporting domestic abuse due to fear of deportation
59
What is political intersectionality? Give an example.
Feminist and antiracist agendas can conflict, forcing women of colour to choose between movements. Addressing violence against Black women is often ignored to avoid reinforcing racist stereotypes about Black men
60
What is representational intersectionality? Give an example.
Media and cultural portrayals often stereotype or erase women of colour’s experiences. Black women survivors of violence are either hypersexualized or dismissed as "angry Black women"
61
What is class inequality in Australia?
Class inequality in Australia refers to disparities in access to resources, education, and opportunities based on economic and social factors. It manifests through different life experiences for wealthy and disadvantaged individuals.
62
What are the key ideas of Karl Marx’s class theory?
Marx argued that class is based on ownership of the means of production. The bourgeoisie (capitalists) exploit the proletariat (workers) by appropriating surplus value, leading to class conflict and the potential for revolution.
63
What is the concept of ‘False Consciousness’ in Marxist theory?
False consciousness refers to the working class mistakenly identifying with capitalist interests rather than recognizing their own exploitation and class position.
64
How does Max Weber define class?
Weber defines class based on market position rather than ownership of production. He introduces the concept of ‘life chances,’ which determine an individual’s economic opportunities based on skills and market demand.
65
What are status groups according to Weber?
Status groups are social communities distinguished by lifestyle, prestige, and social honor, independent of economic wealth. Class and status may not always align.
66
What are Erik Olin Wright’s contributions to class theory?
Wright expands Marxist theory, identifying multiple class positions such as capitalists, petite bourgeoisie, managers, experts, and workers. He acknowledges varying degrees of exploitation.
67
What are the three types of capital in Pierre Bourdieu’s theory?
1. Economic Capital (wealth & assets), 2. Social Capital (networks & connections), 3. Cultural Capital (knowledge, education, tastes).
68
What is cultural capital according to Bourdieu?
Cultural capital refers to non-financial assets such as education, mannerisms, and tastes that confer social status and advantage within society.
69
How does class structure affect education in Australia?
High-income families invest more in education (e.g., private schools, tutoring), while lower-income students face greater challenges in accessing quality education, limiting their social mobility.
70
What role does ‘habitus’ play in class inequality?
Bourdieu’s concept of habitus refers to ingrained dispositions and ways of thinking that shape an individual's perception of opportunities, often reinforcing class-based inequalities.
71
How does class impact perceptions of failure?
Middle-class individuals often see failure as a learning experience, whereas working-class individuals view failure as a significant setback, influencing their career and educational choices.
72
What is the ‘embedded chooser’ concept?
Introduced by Ball et al. (2003), the ‘embedded chooser’ refers to middle-class students for whom completing high school and attending university is a given, unlike working-class students who consider multiple pathways.
73
What is the significance of decision points in class inequality?
Working-class students often see the end of Year 10 as a major decision point, deciding between work, apprenticeships, or continuing school, while middle-class students assume university as their next step.
74
How does masculinity influence working-class educational ambition?
Unlike traditional stereotypes of anti-school masculinity, many working-class boys value hard work and responsibility, linking success to perseverance and effort.
75
What is the relationship between gender and class in employment?
Women are more likely to be concentrated in clerical and service occupations, with class and gender intersecting to limit career opportunities and wage growth.
76
What is the main critique of class analysis in contemporary sociology?
Some sociologists argue that increasing individualization and consumerism have weakened class divisions, but others maintain that structural inequalities still shape opportunities and life chances.
77
How do social networks reinforce class inequalities?
Higher-income individuals have access to influential networks that provide career opportunities, while lower-income individuals lack these connections, making upward mobility more difficult.
78
What is reflexive consciousness in sociology?
Reflexive consciousness in sociology refers to reflecting back on oneself.
79
Who believed that societies pass through major epochs or stages according to the reference text?
Auguste Comte believed that societies pass through major epochs or stages, including theological, metaphysical, and scientific stages.
80
Who was the first Professor of Sociology at the University of Bordeaux in France according to the reference text?
Emile Durkheim became the first Professor of Sociology at the University of Bordeaux in France, marking the beginning of sociology as an academic discipline distinct from psychology.
81
What did Max Weber examine in his work 'The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism'?
Max Weber examined the relationship between Protestantism and capitalism in his work 'The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.'
82
Which theorist formulated the view that societies progress from simple to complex stages of evolution?
Herbert Spencer, an English theorist, formulated the view that societies progress from simple to complex stages of evolution.
83
Who theorized that European societies were the most highly evolved during the colonial context?
Herbert Spencer theorized that European societies were the most highly evolved during the colonial context.
84
Which theorist focused on the social facts embodied in social institutions and collective phenomena?
Emile Durkheim, a French sociologist, focused on social facts embodied in social institutions and collective phenomena.
85
Who compared suicide rates in different countries and derived a typology of suicide based on religious association?
Emile Durkheim compared suicide rates in different countries and derived a typology of suicide based on religious association.
86
What is the main purpose of understanding class location according to E.O. Wright?
E.O. Wright argues that the main purpose of understanding class location is to comprehend how it contributes to social and economic inequality, providing a richer understanding of class and inequality in modern societies.
87
Who emphasized the concept of cultural capital, social capital, and economic capital in determining social class?
Pierre Bourdieu emphasized the concept of economic capital, social capital, and cultural capital in determining social class.
88
What is the main difference between race and ethnicity according to the reference text?
Race is more about biology and appearance, linked to race science, while ethnicity is more about cultural practices, heritage, beliefs, and community acceptance.
89
What concept emerged after WWII as a reaction against the Holocaust and the dangerous concept of race?
Ethnicity emerged as a concept after WWII as a reaction against the Holocaust and the dangerous concept of race, focusing on a combination of biology, culture, environment, and social conditions.
90
Who argued against biological determinism by showing that differences between immigrants and citizens were not biological but environmental?
Franz Boas argued against biological determinism by demonstrating that differences between immigrants and citizens were not biological but were due to environmental factors.
91
Who argued that race is a biological category but is socially constructed through observers' choices about where circles should be drawn?
Blakey argued that race is a biological category but is socially constructed through observers' choices about where circles should be drawn, highlighting the malleability of race as a social construction.
92
What did the UNESCO statement in 1950 assert about race as a scientific concept?
The UNESCO statement in 1950 asserted that race is not a biological phenomenon but a social myth, leading to the unjustified nature of racism.
93
Who argued that the concept of race should be abandoned altogether because it is a meaningless scientific category?
Many have suggested that the concept of race should be abandoned altogether because it is a meaningless scientific category, emphasizing the lack of genetic variation between races.
94
What did Franz Boas demonstrate through his studies on Jewish migrants from Eastern Europe and their children?
Franz Boas demonstrated that when Jewish migrants from Eastern Europe and their children lived in a new social environment, factors such as new diets and exercise regimes altered their physical bodies, highlighting the environmental rather than biological
95
What was the key concept of sociology during its early development according to the text?
Sociology during its early development was understood as a science of social development with a focus on historical progress.
96
Who argued that the transition from traditional to modern societies involved a reversal of the political axis of power according to the text?
Michel Foucault is mentioned in the text as arguing that the transition to modern societies involved a reversal of the political axis of power.
97
Who argued that societies evolve progressively according to different stages of economic production?
Karl Marx proposed the theory of historical materialism, asserting that societies evolve progressively according to different stages of economic production.
98
What does the term 'meritocracy' refer to in the context of sociology?
Meritocracy is the idea that people are selected or rewarded based on their merit or abilities rather than factors like wealth, income, or power.
99
Who argued that individuals have agency in shaping their lives but are also influenced by social structures and inequalities?
Pierre Bourdieu highlighted the concept of 'habitus,' suggesting that individuals have agency in their decisions but are also shaped by social structures and inequalities.
100
Who coined the term 'Positivist' and emphasized the use of scientific method in sociology?
August Comte coined the term 'Positivist' and emphasized the use of scientific method in sociology. He believed that a fact should be observable and measurable through the scientific method, and societies pass through major epochs or stages.
101
What is the Feminist Standpoint theory developed by Nancy Hartsock in 1983?
The Feminist Standpoint theory developed by Nancy Hartsock in 1983 addresses the marginalization of gender identifications in a patriarchal society. It argues that in a patriarchal society, the gender is considered default and thus other gender identification
102
According to Karl Marx, what is the chief characteristic of an industrial society?
According to Karl Marx, the chief characteristic of an industrial society is economic production, which provides the basis for social arrangements and reflects the modes of production in that society.
103
According to Pierre Bourdieu, what are the three forms of cultural capital?
1. embodied
2. objectified
3. institutionalised
Pierre Bourdieu identified three forms of cultural capital: embodied (cultural rules of class that must be performed in a relaxed way), objectified (material possessions achieved due to class), and institutionalised (credentials, qualifications, or titles
104
What is the concept of biological determinism, as mentioned in the document text?
Biological determinism, as mentioned in the document text, is the idea that most human characteristics, both physical and mental, are determined at conception by hereditary factors passed from parent to offspring.
105
In the Australian Census, race is categorized through which of the following?
In the Australian Census, race is categorized based on ancestry, making it the most relevant factor for classification.
106
According to Standpoint theory, what does it acknowledge about knowledge claims?
Standpoint theory acknowledges that all knowledge claims are socially situated, meaning they are influenced by the social context in which they are produced.
107
What is the primary argument against the definition of gender as a cultural difference of women from men?
The primary argument against the definition of gender as a cultural difference of women from men is that it excludes the differences among women and men, as well as processes which lie beyond the individual person, like social processes based on the share
108
Sex (Definition)
Biological and physiological characteristics (e.g., chromosomes, reproductive organs, hormones). Classified as male or female.
109
Gender (definition)
Socially constructed identities, roles, behaviors, and expectations associated with being male, female, or non-binary.
110
Gender Order
A social system organizing roles, responsibilities, and power dynamics according to gender, often privileging men over women.
111
Gender Binary
The categorization of gender strictly into two distinct forms: male and female.
112
Non-Binary
An identity that falls outside or between traditional male-female gender categories.
113
Essentialism (definition)
Belief that gender traits and roles are biologically determined, fixed, and innate rather than socially constructed.
114
Constructivism (definition)
The theory that identities, including gender, are socially created and continually shaped through social interactions, norms, and cultural expectations.
115
Femininity (as performance)
The idea that femininity involves learned behaviors and bodily practices (appearance, gestures, movements) rather than innate biological traits.
116
Masculinity (definition)
Social expectations and behaviors associated with being male, often emphasizing strength, power, rationality, and dominance.
117
Patriarchy (definition)
A social, political, and economic system in which men hold primary power, authority, and privilege.
118
Gendered Division of Labor
The unequal distribution of labor tasks according to gender, typically assigning men to public, paid work and women to unpaid, domestic roles.
119
Gendered Discipline (definition)
Social practices and norms that regulate behavior, appearance, and attitudes differently for men and women, enforcing gender expectations.
120
Body Discipline (Bartky’s concept)
Practices women engage in (dieting, grooming, posture control) to conform to ideal standards of femininity, reinforcing patriarchal power.
121
What is the key thesis of "Race as Biology Is Fiction, Racism as a Social Problem Is Real" by Audrey and Brian Smedley?
Race is not a biologically meaningful category; it is a social construct used to justify inequality and social hierarchy.
122
How does ethnicity differ from race according to Smedley & Smedley?
Ethnicity is based on shared cultural traits (language, religion, traditions), while race is based on perceived physical traits and falsely treated as biologically fixed.
123
What percentage of genes do all humans share according to genetic research?
99.9%
124
When did racial categories first emerge, and why?
In the 17th century to justify African slavery and social hierarchy.
125
What are the key components of racial ideology identified by Smedley?
- Races are biologically distinct.
- Races are hierarchically ranked.
- Cultural behaviors are linked to biology.
- Differences are seen as permanent.
- Legal and social systems reinforce racial boundaries.
125
How did ancient societies like the Greeks and Romans treat physical differences?
They incorporated diverse peoples into their societies without racial distinctions.
126
Q: What does modern genetics reveal about the validity of race as a biological category?
A: Modern genetics shows that genetic variation within races is greater than variation between races.
126
Q: How did 19th-century scientists try to justify racial hierarchy?
A: Through intelligence tests and biological studies that falsely linked behavior to race.
127
Q: How are racial and ethnic categories defined in Australian census data?
A: Based on self-identification of:
Country of birth
Language spoken at home
Ancestry (e.g., Irish, Chinese, Aboriginal)
Indigenous status
128
Q: What are the main differences between race and ethnicity?
Race = Perceived biological traits, treated as fixed and hierarchical.
Ethnicity = Cultural traits, fluid and self-defined.
128
Q: What is the policy implication of race being socially constructed?
A: Public policy should focus on addressing structural inequality rather than biological differences.
129
Q: Why is ethnicity more flexible than race?
A: Ethnic identity can change through the adoption of new cultural traits, while race is imposed and treated as fixed.
129
Q: What health disparities do racial minorities face, according to Smedley?
Lower-quality healthcare.
Less access to medication and treatment.
Higher rates of adverse health outcomes.
Disparities persist even when controlling for income and education.
129
Q: Why is the concept of race considered a social problem rather than a scientific fact?
A: Race is used to justify social dominance and inequality despite having no basis in biology.
130
Q: How does the idea of white privilege reinforce racial inequality? (Link to McIntosh)
A: White privilege gives unearned advantages to white people, reinforcing social dominance and maintaining existing hierarchies.
131
According to Blakey, arguments for sterilisation and an end to welfare for African Americans are based on
eugenics = controlling the reproduction of certain groups would "improve" the genetic quality of society.
132
What does it mean to say that Sociology is a ‘normative’ discipline?
Sociology has a value base, to improve society
133
Politicians arguing that welfare should be cut because 'assistance to the poor, the sick, and the needy discourages self-reliance and is detrimental to the well-being of society as a whole' is an example of..
darwinism
| natural selection and survival of the fittest
134
Why did Weber not agree with Marx’s notion of class consciousness?
Weber did not think that most people were able to reach such consciousness
135
The primary focus of sociologists is
Social patterns and processes
136
Who saw class as being determined primarily by the market?
Friedrich Engels
137
Which theorist came up with the idea of surplus value?
marx
138
What is 'class consciousness'?
When workers recognise their collective position, interests, and have an awareness of the exploitative dynamic with employers
139
Roberts et al (in their paper examining sexting practices) argue that masculinity norms among young men at universities in Australia reward young men that
have lots of sexual partners
140
When did craniometry (head measurement) stop being used to make racial comparisons?
mid 20th century
141
Who is associated with Functionalism?
durkheim
142
Who is associated with Conflict Theory?
marx
143
What is a key critique of functionalism?
It assumes that all social institutions contribute to stability
144
What is the relationship between political and structural intersectionality?
Political intersectionality focuses on individual identity; structural intersectionality focuses on systems of oppression
145
What is a key feature of organic solidarity according to Durkheim?
Division of labour and interdependence
146
What is an example of symbolic violence according to Bourdieu?
- Cultural domination that leads individuals to accept their own subordination
-Symbolic violence refers to the subtle, often unnoticed forms of domination embedded in cultural and social practices
147
What is the main argument of structural functionalism regarding social order?
Social order emerges from cooperation and shared norms
148
How does "mechanical solidarity" differ from "organic solidarity"?
Mechanical solidarity is based on shared values; organic solidarity is based on division of labour
