Urban Cities Concepts and Definitions

Question 1

Define resilient cities

Answer 1

A resilient city is one in which the individuals, businesses, communities, and institutions have the capacity to survive, adapt and grow notwithstanding the challenges or shocks the city experiences.

Question 2

Define eco cities

Answer 2

Cities that are designed to be environmentally sustainable when resources are used in meeting the needs of the present population of the city without comprising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Question 3

Define smart cities

Answer 3

A city that incorporates information and communication technologies to enhance the quality and performance of urban services, such as energy and transportation utilities, in order to reduce resource consumption, wastage and overall costs.

Question 4

What are the disadvantages of smart cities?

Answer 4

1. They can be very expensive
2. City managers may not be able to give priority to data privacy and security (Governmental Fault)
3. Presence of security cameras may be seen as invasion of privacy or oppressive government surveillance (Citizens’ skepticism)

Question 5

Define urbanisation

Answer 5

An increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas such as urban towns and cities

Question 6

Define urban growth

Answer 6

The increase in the size of a particular settlement or an increase in the number of people living in urban centres.

Question 7

Define urban sprawl

Answer 7

The unplanned and uncontrolled physical expansion of an urban area into the surrounding countryside, which makes it closely linked to the processes of suburbanisation.

Question 8

Define reurbanisation

Answer 8

The development of activities to increase residential population densities within the existing built-up area of a city. This includes the redevelopment of vacant land, refurbishment of housing and the development of new business enterprises.

Question 9

Define counter-urbanisation

Answer 9

The centrifugal movement of a population from the inner urban areas to outer urban areas such as villages and commuter towns along the rural-urban fringe.

Question 10

Define brownfield site

Answer 10

Abandoned, derelict or under-used industrial buildings and land that may be contaminated but have potential for redevelopment.

Question 11

Define suburb

Answer 11

A residential area within or just outside the boundaries of a city.

Question 12

Define ecological footprint

Answer 12

The theoretical measures of the amount of land and water a population requires to produce the resources it consumes and to absorb its waste under prevailing technology.

Question 13

Define suburbanisation

Answer 13

The outward growth of towns and cities to engulf surrounding villages and rural areas. This may result from the out-migration of population from the inner urban area to the suburbs or from inward rural-urban movement

Question 14

What are the reasons for suburbanisation?

Answer 14

1. Improvement in transport systems - electric tramways and public buses.
2. Decline in price of farmlands, coupled with rising wages and higher standards of living, necessitating private housing

Question 15

What are the reasons for counter urbanisation?

Answer 15

1. High prices of land in urban areas
2. Congestion, pollution and high crime rate
3. Lack of community spiritedness
4. Declining services

Question 16

What are the characteristics of urban sprawl?

Answer 16

Characterised by discontinuous, haphazard, uncoordinated, unplanned or poorly planned urban development.
Low density, excessive consumption of land, automobile dependence, separation of land-uses, social segregation and displeasing aesthetics.

Question 17

What are the main 5 aspects of urban infrastructure?

Answer 17

1. Transportation Improvement. Road networks and mode of transport. Improving the urban public transport and discouraging people from owning cars.
2. Sanitation
3. Water
4. Waste disposal
5. Telecommunications

Question 18

Define gentrification

Answer 18

A process in which a poor urban area experiences an influx of young upwardly mobile and affluent people who renovate and rebuild homes and businesses, often resulting in an increase in property values and the displacement of earlier, usually poorer residents

Question 19

What are the causes of urban deindustrialisaton?

Answer 19

1. Gloabalisation causing the out-migration of the manufacturing sectors of advanced countries to areas where there’s greater advantages such as lower corporate taxes, more relaxed environmental, raw materials and a greater labour market.
2. Decline in demand for manufactured goods as a result of technological advancements where online music would replace the buying of CDs.
3. Automation. Machinery or robots replace human labour, maximising profits.
4. Political changes. Introduction of free trade policies and removal of trade barriers exposes many manufacturing industries to international competition, causing them to relocate to areas where the cost of production is low.
5. Tertiarisation. Manufacturing industries are replaced with the tertiary industry including telecommunications, electronics industry, law firms. Movement from blue collar jobs to white collar jobs.

Question 20

What are the positive consequences of deindustrialisation?

Answer 20

1. Urban renewal. Abandoned brownfield sites would eventually be renovated or revitalised to bolster the economy in other ways. City officials would also regenerate such areas through innovative architecture
2. Low energy usage and environmental sustainability.

Question 21

What are the negative consequences of deindustrialisation?

Answer 21

1. Increase in unemployment as low skilled workers would find it harder to get themselves a job
2. Income inequality - the high-skilled workers, due to better job security. would get richer whereas the unemployed may get poorer.
3. Increase in crime levels
4. Decline in service provision in these urban areas

Question 22

What are the factors causing urban decline in the context of CBDs?

Answer 22

1. Poor and ageing nature of infrastructure
2. Increase in car ownership makes it easier for people to live outside of the CBD
3. Investors attracted to out of town locations because many business owners desire to escape the traffic congestion and pollution, so they would prefer to locate outside of the CBD
4. Cost of maintaining the CBD. It is expensive to maintain the infrastructure or improve the conditions of a CBD due to high daytime traffic and the high cost involved in renewing existing infrastructure.
5. Congestion, both vehicular and human and their associated problems can cause a CBD to decline by reducing the convenience of common movement. High traffic and poor transport management can reduce productivity due to time wastage

Question 23

What are the reasons behind why industries are attracted to large cities?

Answer 23

1. Cities have large markets which consist of a large number of potential customers.
2. Cities also often have access to a large resource base that is often attained through effective transportation or through close proximity to such areas. Manufacturing industries can thus profit from the lower cost per product manufactured.
3. Cities have highly skilled labour that are innovative, creative and can provide information for research and development of the products produced.

Question 24

What are the physical factors affecting the pattern of residential areas within urban areas?

Answer 24

• In some cities, the poor are located along major roads and water bodies such as rivers to make transportation easier and to benefit from the agricultural resources that they may provide. They may also be located close to airports.
• Resource-rich areas (Komabangu, Niger)

Question 25

How does land value affect the location of residential areas in urban areas?

Answer 25

1. High value land can be used for residential purposes such as Villagio Primavera in Ghana, where the apartment complex consists of many houses that are built for sale and rental purposes. Thus, its owners can benefit by profiting from the sale and rentals of these apartments whilst its residents do not have to bear the full cost of the high-value land. 2. Upper classes, due to car ownership, chooses to live in areas further away from the city centre as cheaper land values are more attractive. 3. Despite high land values, the lower classes live closer to the CBD due to lack of car ownership but on land that is dilapidated or in polluted areas. Example: Sodom and Gomorrah in Ghana.

Question 26

How does ethnicity affect the residential patterns in a city?

Answer 26

1. Positive segregation. People of similar culture live together and are able to benefit from the close-knit community they form through financial and societal means. They are also able to preserve their culture. 2. Negative segregation. When the indigenous people look down upon them. 3. Government policies may also enforce and encourage ethnic segregation along ethnic lines to prevent racial or ethnic conflicts between the different groups of people.

Question 27

How does urban residential planning affect location of residential areas?

Answer 27

Government can plan houses according to the economic status of the people. In the UK, Croydon is an areas designated for the middle class whereas Chelsea is designated for the higher class people.

Question 28

What are the indicators of urban deprivation?

Answer 28

1. Economic Indicators: Access to employment, levels of income of families 2. Social Indicators: Crime, levels of health and access to health care, houses lacking of one or more basic amenities 3. Environmental Factors: Amount of derelict land, water and air pollution

Question 29

Define slums

Answer 29

A settlement where the inhabitants have inadequate housing and lack basic services

Question 30

Define squatter settlements

Answer 30

A squatter is a person who settles on public without permission or has unauthorised possession of unoccupied premises.

Question 31

What are the characteristics of slums and squatter setllements?

Answer 31

1. Lacking basic services. (e.g. Access to sanitation and reliable water supply, lack of waste reliable waste disposal, electricity supply) 2. Sub-standard housing or illegal & inadequate building structures 3. Overcrowding and high density 4. Insecure tenure 5. Unhealthy and hazardous living conditions

Question 32

What are the characteristics of the informal sector?

Answer 32

1. Less capital is required to start a business in it 2. Usually labour intensive ie. lower dependence on technology 3. Production of low quality standard goods 4. Most businesses are not registered nor taxed 5. Low job security and irregular working hours

Question 33

What are the causes of urban heat islands?

Answer 33

1. Anthropogenic heat release - Human-related or human-caused activities such as industries, domestic central heating, dust from construction sites, wildfire smoke contribute to enhanced greenhouse effect 2. Fabric of a city - Albedo effect. Presence of heat-retaining materials have low albedo, absorb most radiation to release as heat 3. Lack of Vegetation - Less light is intercepted, Less evapotranspiration, less cooling of surrounding air 4. Close arrangement of tall buildings - Trapping of heat energy due to reduced sky view factor, inhibits escape of reflected radiation causing absorption by surrounding infrastructure

Question 34

What are the effects of urban heat islands?

Answer 34

1. Increased energy consumption - Higher demand for cooling, adds pressure to electricity grid, responsible for 5-10% of peak electricity demand in cities 2. Elevated emissions of pollutants and GGs - More energy demand, more pollutants & GGs emitted. Formation and inhalation of ground-level ozone is also bad. 3. Compromised human health and comfort - Higher air pollution + warmer climate = General discomfort + Respiratory problems + Heat-related injuries and mortality

Question 35

What are the causes of air pollution?

Answer 35

1. Burning of fossil fuels - Emissions of carbon, sulfur and nitrogen oxides contribute to EGE. Smoke and pollutants from vehicles. 2. Agricultural activities - Ammonia is common chemical and one of the most hazardous gases in atmosphere. 3. Exhaust from factories & industries - Release large amount of pollutants (hydrocarbons, CO) = Deplete air quality 4. Mining - Dust & chemicals released in air causing massive air pollution = Deteriorating health condition of workers & nearby residents

Question 36

What are the effects of air pollution?

Answer 36

1. Respiratory and health problems. Millions have died as a direct or indirect cause. 2. Global warming. EGE. Higher temp = higher sea levels, Displacement and loss of habitat have already signalled impending disaster 3. Acid rain/deposition. 4. Eutrophication. High amount of nitrogen present in pollutants gets developed on sea surface & affects marine biodiversity 5. Depletion of ozone layer. Thinner ozone layer will cause skin cancer.

Question 37

What are the solutions for air pollution?

Answer 37

1. Use public transport. Decrease carbon footprint per commuter. Can make use of car pooling. 2. Conserve energy (individually). Spread awareness. 3. Emphasis on clean energy/ renewable sources.

Question 38

Define urban social deprivation.

Answer 38

Urban deprivation is a standard of leaving below that of the majority in a particular society that involves hardships and lack of access to resources. Places suffering from urban deprivation have visible differences in housing and economic opportunities.

Question 39

Define social exclusion.

Answer 39

(Could be considered as a product of social deprivation). When a member in a particular society is ostracised by other members of society. Results in denial of access to jobs, social supports or peer networks. can lead to poverty.

Question 40

What are the causes of urban crime?

Answer 40

1. Unemployment - Jobless adults may tend to engage in crime to make ends meet 2. Inequality - Poor income distribution, poor get poorer and harder for them to escape cycle of poverty 3. Poor urban infrastructure - Poor street lighting, development of squatter settlements 4. Inadequate security protection - No alarm systems or cctv, poor governance

Question 41

What are the consequences of megacity growth for individuals and societies?

Answer 41

1. Slum housing - poor or no sanitation, RUM that dont have money for rent or proper housing 2. Crime - Impoverished people need to resort to crime to survive, Higher in shanty areas 3. Traffic Congestion - Noise pollution, Govt funds not enough to support transport infrastructure in LICs 4. Air & Water Pollution - Health Concerns for residents

Question 42

Define urban heat island

Answer 42

An urban heat island is an urban area or metropolitan area that is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas due to human activities and developments.

Question 43

Why is the informal economy important in cities?

Answer 43

1. It provides the low-skilled laborers with a source of income who otherwise would not be able to find a job in the formal sector that demands a higher level of expertise. 2. It provides a cheaper source of resources for the people.

Question 44

How does the stage in the life/ family status of individuals affect their choice of residence?

Answer 44

Family status refers to whether a person is single, married, married with children and it describes how their housing needs vary depending on the size of their families. Single people may live in more central areas in rented and small accommodations close to work/education whereas married couples may move towards the quieter suburbs.

Question 45

Define a circular economy

Answer 45

A circular system where inputs (energy, water, people, materials, products, food) are reduced and outputs (solid, atmospheric and liquid waste) are recycled.

Question 46

Define urban stress

Answer 46

The inability of an urban system to cope with the demands of its population due to its size or rate of consumption.

Question 47

What are the symptoms of urban stresses?

Answer 47

1. Pollution (air or water) beyond acceptable levels, for example, photochemical smog 2. Widespread poverty, beyond ability of city authorities to provide social care 3. Lack of adequate housing evidenced by high levels of homelessness or informal housing 4. High levels of civil unrest or crime levels 5. Widespread traffic congestion or poor transport infrastructure

Question 48

What are the characteristics of the central business district?

Answer 48

1. Tall/multi-storey buildings (Vertical zoning due to expensive land values) 2. High density of roads (due to the regional interconnectivity of the CBD with its surrounding areas) 3. Lack of open space. Govt may priortise other forms of grey infrastructure over green infrastructure due to the need to concentrate retail activities. 4. Clustering/High-density of shops due to the reputation that an area develops and to allow consumers to engage in comparative-shopping. (resulting in shopping malls and pedestrian precincts).