Urban environments Flashcards
(120 cards)
1
Q
Urban settlement examples
A
Towns and cities
2
Q
Rural settlement examples
A
Villages and hamlets
3
Q
Define urbanisation
A
An increase in the percentage of a country’s population living in towns or cities
4
Q
Define urbanisation level
A
The percentage of a country’s population living in towns or cities
5
Q
How does physical geography affect urbanisation levels?
A
If a large proportion of a country has a harsh, uninhabitable terrain, then population is forced to concentrate into towns or cities, increasing urbanisation levels
6
Q
How does level of development affect urbanisation levels
A
- more developed countries have better economy
- higher % of population are attracted to live in towns and cities (increasing urbanisation levels)
(Less developed countries = higher % in rural areas bc of economy based on agriculture)
7
Q
How does the spatial extent of a country affect levels of urbanisation
A
smaller countries have higher levels of urbanisation as there’s less land that has to be urbanised, (increasing urbanisation levels) whereas this is the opposite in bigger countries
8
Q
Where can you find lowest level of urbanization? Why?
A
- Less developed regions = sub-Saharan Africa , south-east Asia
- developing economies based around agriculture means that higher % of pop. lives in rural areas
9
Q
Where can you find highest levels of urbanisation? Why?
A
- More developed regions = North America, Western Europe and Oceania
- have more advanced economies based around manufacturing and services, which happen in urban settings, meaning a greater % of the population reside in urban areas
10
Q
Define urbanisation rate
A
The speed at which a country’s level of urbanisation is increasing
11
Q
What regions have low urbanisation rates and why?
A
Developed countries have low rates of urbanisation as they have high levels of urbanisation - if a large % of pop. already lives in towns and cities it’s harder to increase from this as there’s not much left to be done
12
Q
Which regions have high urbanisation rates and why?
A
- Developing countries have high rates of urbanisation as they have low levels of urbanisation
- if a small % of pop. lives in urban areas, there is potential for rapid growth via economic development, industrialisation and shift from primary to secondary and tertiary industries
- high rates of natural increase in developing cities
13
Q
3 reasons for high rates of urbanisation in developing and emerging countries
A
- rural-to-urban migration
- natural increase
- economic development
14
Q
How does rural-urban migration affect urbanisation rates?
A
- movement of people from rural to urban areas (which increases % of pop in urban areas)
- this is due to push factors of rural areas and pull factors of urban areas
- this therefore increases urbanisation rates
15
Q
How does natural increase affect urbanisation rates?
A
- emerging and developing countries have high natural increase rates (due to lots of young adults)
- tend to migrate to cities for better life + job + education
16
Q
how does economic development affect urbanization rates?
A
- as country develops economically, sectoral shift from agricultural (rural-based) to manufacturing or service (urban based) economy causes new jobs to be created in cities
- new jobs attracts an influx of of RTU migrants
- furthermore, developed + emerging countries’ governments may concentrate investment + economic development in a few major cities, making them more attractive to migrants
17
Q
Difference in economic activity in urban and rural areas
A
- urban areas = secondary and tertiary industries - manufacturing and services
- rural areas = primary industries such as agriculture
18
Q
Difference in size between urban and rural areas
A
- urban = generally larger in terms of population and spatial extent
- rural = generally smaller in both
19
Q
Difference between urban and rural areas in density of people and buildings
A
- urban = higher
- rural = lower
20
Q
Examples of developed countries
A
UK, USA, Japan, Australia
21
Q
Examples of emerging countries
A
India, china, Mexico, Brazil
22
Q
Examples of developing countries
A
DR congo, Nigeria, Nepal
23
Q
What are the four stages of the urbanisation curve?
A
- stage 1 = developing - early urbanisation
- stage 2 = emerging - accelerating urbanisation
- stage 3 = developed - mature urbanisation
- stage 4 = developed - counter-urbanisation
Countries become more urbanised as they develop more
24
Q
Pull factors of cities and towns
A
- job availability
- more investment in social services
- bright lights effects
25
Push factors of rural areas
- high unemployment
- lack of investment in social services
- lack of exciting opportunities
26
Agglomeration
The concentration of people and their activities at particular locations
27
Rural to urban migration
The movement of population from rural areas e.g villages to urban areas e.g cities
28
Suburbanisation
The expansion of an urban area by the construction of Low density housing developments on the rural urban fringe
29
Urban sprawl
When a city expands out into the surrounding rural area
30
Conurbation
When neighbouring urban centres can merge together to form a large urban area
31
Counter-urbanisation
The movement of people and employment from major cities to smaller cities and towns, as well as to rural areas
32
Urban regeneration
Investment of capital in the revival of older urban areas by either improving what is there or clearing it away and building new
33
Urban re-imaging
Changing the image of an urban area and the way people view it
34
Urbanisation of the suburbs
When the suburbs get mor urbanised as a result of increased population density
35
Order of processes of urbanisation
Agglomeration, rural-to-urban migration, suburbanisation, commuting,counter urbanisation, urban regeneration, urban reimaging, urbanisation of the suburbs
36
Megacity
A city with a population of 10M or greater
37
Millionaire city
A city with a population of 1M or greater
38
Global city
A city that is recognised worldwide as a place of great prestige, status, power and influence
39
Advantages of megacities
- increased wealth and better quality of life
- greater business profits
- economic development of city
- increased participation in global economy
40
Disadvantages of megacities
- may grow at the expense of other regions of country
- pressure on accommodation = shanty towns and high house prices
- congestion and traffic
- pressure on healthcare and services
- environmental degradation - loss of habitat, air + water pollution due to urban sprawl
41
As of 2020, how many megacities are there globally?
33
42
what are the three main changes that have happened to megacities globally since 1970?
- there are 29 more megacities (33 as of 2020) than in 1970
- megacities are constantly growing larger in size
- megacities used to be more common in developed countries, but now the growth of megacities has largely occurred in emerging regions such as south and south east Asia, as well as south America
43
Four interconnected reasons for the growth of megacities
- economic development
- economies of scale
- multiplier effect
- population growth
44
reason 1 for the growth of megacities - economic development
- economic growth drives urbanisation
- as countries develop economically, sectoral shift from rural based to urban based economies (i.e. agriculture to manufacturing/services) causes urbanization
- furthermore, as the whole country begins to develop economically at an even rate, more megacities will form
45
reason 2 for the growth of megacities - population growth
- increased economic growth = increased demand of labour in urban areas
- this demand is met by influx of RTU migrants that constantly flock to major cities in the hope of better jobs and overall QoL
- most of the migrants are young adults = megacities often have high rates of natural increase, further fueling population growth
46
reason 3 for the growth of megacities - economies of scale
by cramming in similar businesses in the same area of a city, there are:
- financial saving due to short transport distances between them
- similar businesses can share infrastructure such as roads and railways = infrastructure doesn't need to be installed multiple times in various cities = saves government money
- easier communication amongst both businesses and customers due to shorter distance
47
reason 4 for growth of megacities - multiplier effect
- once a large city is prospering, it gathers momentum which propels it towards further growth
- population growth -> greater demand for goods + services -> more jobs created -> RTU migration causes population growth again
- every time this cycle si completed, more people enter the city, fuelling the growth of megacities
48
Problems with rapid urbanisation- housing
- rural to urban migration = more ppl from rural areas/small towns
- not enough accommodation as they all want cheap housing
- millions then go to shanty towns + build unsanitary informal squatter settlements
- even for rich ppl there’s struggle bc of high house prices and wages aren’t high enough - demand of housing exceeds supply
49
Problems with rapid urbanisation- education
- school provision hasn’t kept up with rapid growth
- most cities have primary education but not all kids go to secondary school
- children may need to work to support family and school is expensive
50
Problems with rapid urbanisation- traffic
- proper road and transport provisions are lacking + can’t keep up w growth
- high pop density means that transport systems like road become congested easily
- unproductive for economic development
- smog is produced a lot
51
Problems with rapid urbanisation- social problems
- cities in developing countries+ emerging countries have high crime rates
- murder, rape and robbery is common
- sometime poorer shanty towns are controlled by violent drug-trafficking gangs which police struggle to control
52
Problems with rapid urbanisation- access to water and electricity
- provision of basic services cannot keep up with growing population
- not all parts will be provided with water and electricity
- many ppl rely on fire for heat and light and polluted streams for water and sewage disposal
53
Problems with rapid urbanisation- health
- not enough Doctors, clinics and hospitals for the growing population
- large areas of city don’t have access to clean water + sanitation
- disease and infection spread easily (e.g typhoid, cholera)
- atmospheric pollution leads to breathing problems+ respiratory diseases e.g bronchitis
54
Problems with rapid urbanisation - employment
- influx of R-T-U migrants is far greater than the number of formal jobs available
- unemployment isn’t an option so ppl work in the informal economy (food, shoe-shining, rickshaw) to generate their own income
- welfare state system perhaps underdeveloped in developing countries - less support for the unemployed
- however this lacks security as there’s no pension system, no regular hours + wages or tax
- formal employment such as factories are often too far from shanty towns with poor transport
55
Urban land zones in order (inside to outside)
Arranged in a concentric circle fashion :
- core
- inner city
- suburbs
- urban fringe
56
Describe the core of a city
- CBD = central business district
- oldest part pf city
- land uses = commercial, entertainment and transportation
- usually has the highest-rise buildings
57
Describe the inner city layer of a city
- found immediately outside core
- mostly Victorian era (19th century) buildings
- original function was industrial but most are now derelict or converted to flats
- lots of terraced housing for factory workers still remains
58
Describe the suburbs of a city
- lies outside inner city layer
- mostly dates from 20th century
- main land use = residential
- people became more affluent so moved away from chaos of city , gives good work life balance and they can live in more pleasant areas
- larger houses = more detached and semi-detached houses w/ front and back garden
59
Describe the urban fringe of a city
- found on edge of urban area, where town merges into countryside
- wide range of land uses : new housing developments (residential), out-of-town superstores and retail parks (commercial), industrial estates (industrial) and business parks and golf courses (commercial and leisure respectively)
60
what is the PLVI?
Peak Land Value Intersection - most expensive piece of land in an urban area
61
name all the possible land uses of the urban fringe
- retail parks
- industrial estates
- business parks
- science parks
- new housing estates
62
advantages of building on the urban fringe
- cheaper land = lower development cost
- higher availability of land than in CBD = allowing for the development of buildings with large footprints
- good accessibility for customers near large ring roads or arterial roads = easier to reach site
- more green space = attractive environment that can be landscaped to make shopping more pleasant
- lower crime rates = safer - shoppers feel safe and businesses are less likely to experience theft
63
disadvantages of building in the city center
- very expensive land closer to PLVI
- low availability of land = no space for car parks for shoppers/staff and unsuitable for building which need large footprint
- traffic congestion = low accessibility for shoppers/staff
- les green space + more pollution = worse experience for ppl when they come
64
What are the 3 things that can be notice as we move away from the core?
- age of the buildings decreases
- density of development decreases
- architectural style changes
65
name the four factors affecting the development of urban land use patterns
- land values
- shared locational needs
- transport routes
- wind direction
66
factors affecting urban land use patterns - land values
- greatest competition for land in core due to central location, which promotes economies of scale
- this means highest land values are in CBD, as well as PLVI
- commercial land use dominates core - accessibility is crucial for success of shops + offices = high land values due to highest demand
- high land values near major arterial roads + ring roads = high commercial land use (i.e. large shopping centers) due to easy accessibility when leaving/entering city
67
factors affecting urban land use patterns - shared locational needs
- retail + other commercial businesses cluster in CBD due to shared need of high accessibility for customers
- manufacturing also requires high accessibility for transport of products + raw materials but has less buying power so often found in inner city along main roads
- residential has least buying power so have a shared need for low-value land with more green space and cleaner air = houses cluster in suburbs of cities
68
factors affecting urban land use patterns - transport routes
- transport routes = high accessibility = locations near transport routes like roads, railways, rivers etc. are desirable for commercial and retail land uses
- causes sectors in land uses alongside concentric land use zones e.g. heavy industry near one area and commercial near other
- however, high-quality housing developments are often a good distance away from major transport routes to prevent noise + air pollution
69
factors affecting urban land use patterns - wind direction
- prevailing south-westerly wind means that heavy industry and the associated low quality housing is found on the east side so that the pollution from factories doesn't blow (and spread pollution) across the city
- the west end of cities tend to be wealthier with better quality housing
70
Name 2 factors affecting the clustering of people within urban areas
- ethnicity
- socio-economic status
71
factors affecting the clustering of people in urban areas - ethnicity
- many ethnic minority groups first appeared in the UK in the 1940's-1960's
- this was bc former British empire countries such as India, Pakistan and Nigeria gained their independence, and citizens were invited to the UK to boost the workforce and rebuild damaged infrastructure post-WW2
- may of the suburbs of cities are likely to see higher concentrations of white British people as migrants flocked to inner city locations, displacing the original white working class
- segregation by ethnicity has fostered multiculturalism in big UK cities
72
why are inner city areas likely to have higher concentrations of ethnic minority groups?
- older inner city areas had cheaper housing and better job availability post-WW2
- proximity to those with shared cultural background = speak the same language
- proximity to places of worship such as temples or other cultural necessities such as halal food shops
- proximity to family and friends
73
factors affecting clustering of people in urban areas - socio-economic status
- wealthiest people can afford the nicest homes (i.e. bigger houses with low density development + big gardens) in suburban areas
- inner city areas tend to have people of lower socio-economic status = small terraced houses are more affordable = higher crime rates
- so those who can afford to live elsewhere do so, and the poor remain
- however, some inner city areas that have been recently regenerated may attract more affluent people, who displace the original working class inhabitants
- also, some suburban areas may be highly deprived due to edge-of-city council estates built in 1960's after the demolition of slums
74
Advantages of multiculturalism
- wide range of restaurants
- cultural events
- diverse music industry
75
Disadvantages of multiculturalism
- tension between different ethnic groups
- xenophobia
- risk of ‘ghetto-isation’ (deprived inner city areas with high ethnic minority concentration)
76
Why is immigration to most UK cities in the inner city?
- cheaper housing
- lots of jobs in services and manufacturing
- family member have already migrated + settled in the area
- similar cultures + languages + religious groups
77
What is white flight?
When a large migration of ethnic minorities migrate into inner city region causing the original white working class families to leave for outer suburbs
78
Economies of scale
Cramming as much as possible into one megacity rather than spreading it out across a number of smaller cities
79
Name 6 urban challenges in Singapore
- food
- energy
- transport
- waste disposal
- concentrated resource consumption
- segregation
80
Urban challenges in Singapore - food provision + security
- with little farming land, Singapore imports over 90% of its food
- local farms only produce 13% of veg, 9% of fish and 24% eggs consumed in Singapore
- danger of food supply running short due to mass imports reliability on other countries
- supply problems caused by political changes in neighbouring
81
Urban challenges in Singapore - energy demand + security
- 95% of energy come from fossil fuels which is a finite resource
- natural gas supply comes from Indonesia + Malaysia so Singapore is geopolitically vulnerable to problems affecting gas supply in neighbouring countries
82
Urban challenges in Singapore - transport
- densely populated + affluent population = hard to build more infrastructure to account for large pop. + lots of congestion on the roads alr in place
- high congestion = high air pollution so exposure to pollution is 80% over the WHO safe level
- air pollution exacerbates respiratory illnesses therefore resulting in over 2000 annual deaths
- time lost in traffic jams reduces economic output and productivity
83
Urban challenges in Singapore - waste disposal and management
- high disposable income + consumer lifestyles in Singapore = lots of waste produced
- only half of solid waste produced is recycled
- 94% of plastic waste is incinerated + ashes are taken to a man-made island 8 mi offshore to dump on
- food waste is a major problem with over 700,000 tonnes produced
84
Urban challenges Singapore - concentrated waste consumption
- average person consumes 8542 kWh of electricity per year
-only 0.24% of this comes from sustainable sources
- 1.6B L of water is used every day + 1B of this water is drawn from Malaysia’s Johor river every day
- Singapore has reclaimed land from the sea to increase its area by 25% over 50 years = destruction of marine ecosystems
85
Urban challenges Singapore - segregation
- home to more than 300,000 low wage workers from, India and Bangladesh
- their right to live in Singapore is tied to their job + employer provides accommodation
- this results in poor conditions for workers, with up to 20 ppl per dorm (ethnic segregation and social polarisation)
- second most unequal country in Asia = highest conc. of millionaires in the world but also lots of ppl w less than $5 a day (social polarisation)
86
what is ethnic segregation and social polarisation?
- social polarisation = the proximity of extreme wealth and poverty within the same area
- ethnic segregation = separation of people based on their ethnic group, often in schools or community settings
87
groups of people involved in education SINGAPORE
- POLITICIANS
- low income families pay $1/month/child for places at ministry of education kindergartens
- 55000 undergrads benefit from enhanced bursaries paid for by ministry of education (makes up 75% of tuition fees)
- introduced 'Teach less, Learn More initiative - which emphasizes quality over quantity of education, reducing syllabus by 10-20% so students can be more innovative
- top 5% of graduates are invited to National Institute of Education to undergo high-quality training to become a teacher, which are far better paid here than in most developed countries
88
groups of people involved in employment SINGAPORE
- INDUSTRIALISTS = skills ignition grow w/Google program - 3000 entry-level Singaporeans gain jobs + training with Google and associated partner companies
- POLITICIANS = Skills Future Platform offers ppl lifetime credit of S$360 to enroll on a choice of over 18000 degrees/one-day courses to retain a workforce for high demand jobs (380,000 ppl used it in 2017), Baby Bonus Scheme - parents are given a Child Development account, into which S$3000 are paid at the child's birth and can be used for childcare and kindergarten expenses
89
groups of people involved in health SINGAPORE
- INDUSTRIALISTS = LumiHealth app launched by gov and apple - participants are offered benefits such as reminders to go to vaccinations/health screenings, and healthy eating tips
- PLANNERS + PROPERTY DEVELOPERS = opened Gardens by The Bay waterfront city park in 2012 - 101 hectares of tranquil green space w/good air quality to exercise in and promote wellbeing and positive mental health
- POLITICIANS = National Steps Challenge - participants can download the Health365 app and complete various activity minutes, in return for rewards like e-vouchers - encourages physical activity + reduces health problems associated w/ sedentary lifestyle , 'My Healthy Plate' initiative - teahces people about balanced diets through the'1/4,1/4,1/2 of protein, wholegrain, fruit + veg' and give them access to healthy recipes
90
groups of people involved in housing SINGAPORE
- PLANNERS + PROPERTY DEVELOPERS = Housing Development Board built a huge number of flats for low to middle income families, and purchase costs have been subsidized by the government - affordable living spaces (82% of ppl live in HDB flats), also launched Community Care Apartments equipped with grab rails and wheelchair-accessible spaces- allowing senior citizens to maintain living independently, providing them w/ a sense of autonomy, Green Towns program- focuses on reducing environmental footprint installing motion-sensor LED lights and solar panels to reduce energy consumption by 15% between 2020-203
- POLITICIANS = SAME AS ABOVE + 'Ethnic Integration Policy' that ensures racial harmony in Singapore’s HDB flats by setting ethnic quotas so people of the different major races (Chinese, Indian and Malay) live together - prevents ethnic enclaves
91
Groups of people involved in transport SINGAPORE
- POLITICIANS = COE (CERTIFICATE OF ENTITIELMENT) fee $70000,making it extremely difficult to buy a new car, variable toll rates - a premium must be paid to drive at rush hours, discouraging drivers to do so, national steps challenge
- PLANNERS = urban redevelopment authority set target of trebling the number of cycle paths to 1320km to encourage ppl to cycle more often
- INDUSTRIALISTS = the Go Ahead transport group (bus company) runs EB app, which allows employees to hail free bus rides instead of private Ubers - encourages them to use public transport
92
groups of people involved in waste disposal SINGAPORE
- INDUSTRIALISTS: Sky Greens, a vertical farm, partnered with Nespresso to turn coffee pods into fertilizer by upcycling aluminum and mixing coffee with manure to grow vegetables., Customers are incentivized to bring reusable bags and containers for takeaways + groceries, earning discounts and helping save 2M plastic pieces
- POLITICIANS: The Good Samaritan Food Donation Act protects supermarkets from liability when donating unused food to food banks. Waste is incinerated before landfill disposal, with the heat generated providing 2-3% of Singapore’s annual electricity.
93
Urban challenges Curitiba - waste disposal CAMBIO VERDE
- Cambio verde (green exchange) program allows ppl to exchange 4Kg of rubbish for 1kg of fresh produce
- allows government to recycle 70% of solid waste
- increased food security for poor residents + guaranteed sale of produce for farmers
94
Urban challenges Curitiba - waste disposal GARBAGE THATS NOT GARBAGE
- allows residents to separate organic and inorganic waste = saves time + money for government
- this money can then be invested into healthcare + education for poor communities
95
Urban challenges Curitiba - waste disposal GARBAGE PURCHASE SCHEME
- targets waste collection in the favelas
- ppl are encouraged to fill bags with waste and take them to a container on the edge of the city
- they are rewarded with a bus token for each bag they give
- reduces problem of waste in favelas + increases mobility of poorest member of society
96
Urban challenges Curitiba- transport BENDY BUSES
- BRT = bus rapid transit system
- bendy (triple articulated) buses have designated roads for them through main points in the city
-85% of ppl take them to a
- reduces air pollution and congestion
- less people on the roads as buses are high capacity = less air pollution as less buses on roads bc of this
- ticket prices are equal regardless of distance + time of journey = more accessible for all members of society
97
Who is the man who ‘designed’ Curitiba?
Jaime Lerner
98
Urban challenges Curitiba- employment
- CIC was built 10km away from the city + attracted 550 factories as there was a highly educated and skilled workforce = 50,000 jobs made
- waste from the ‘garbage that’s not garbage’ scheme is segregated by homeless population + recovering addicts = isolated groups are integrated into economy
- lighthouses of knowledge = free education centres dotted around the city w free internet access + libraries + job training = helps to educate the workforce
99
Urban challenges Curitiba - health
- 64m2 of green space / resident
- 35 parks and wooded areas are strategically placed in flood prone areas of the city to prevent favelas from coming there
- green space soaks up water = lower flood risk = less stagnant water so less waterborne disease
- 1.5M trees have been planted = better mental + physical health
100
Urban challenges Curitiba- education
- free uni for the environment = empowers the city + teaches them about sustainability = creates a sense of civic pride as they understand sustainable urban living
- lighthouses of knowledge
- educational books are sourced to poorer districts’ schools = increases access to educational resources
101
Urban challenges Curitiba- housing
- site + service schemes rehouse poorer residents displaced from flood prone favelas
- offered low interests loans to buy plots of land + free house design
- COHAB-CT = low-income housing authority provides affordable housing + 50,000 new homes have been build on outskirts of city for poorer ppl (NOVO BAIRRO)
- 98.6% of people are connected to the public waterworks = running water in even poorest regions
102
groups of people involved in waste disposal CURITIBA BRAZIL + what did they do
POLITICIANS - green exchange, garbage that isn't garbage scheme, garbage purchasing scheme
103
groups of people involved in transport CURITIBA BRAZIL
- POLITICIANS - BRT system = bendy buses, elevated boarding tubes for access, simplified fares for all, bus companies paid/KM
- PLANNERS = SAME AS ABOVE
104
groups of people involved in housing CURITIBA BRAZIL
- PLANNERS = site and service schemes, public waterworks
- PROPERTY DEVELOPERS = COHAB-CT and novo Bairro
105
groups of people involved in health CURITIBA BRAZIL
- PLANNERS = inclusion of parks and green space, tree planting to reduce air pollution
- PROPERTY DEVELOPERS = CIC was built (industrial center) far away from housing developments, preventing polluted air coming over houses, reducing risk or respiratory diseases
106
groups of people involved in employment CURITIBA BRAZIL
- POLITICIANS = lighthouses of knowledge are free education centers w/ internet access for all, beneficial for favela residents who may not be able to afford it otherwise
- INDUSRTIALISTS = TNCs such as Volvo (who made bendy buses), have been attracted to the CIC, producing 50,000 direct jobs in 2000
107
groups of people involved in education CURITIBA BRAZIL
- PLANNERS = free education centers with free internet access called lighthouses of knowledge
- POLITICIANS = introduced the free university for the environment, which empowers the city's poor about sustainable urban living
108
what is sustainability and what does it mean in the context of urban living?
À a way of living that allows urban residents to enjoy a high quality of life in the present without compromising the future generation’s ability to do the same
109
Urban challenges in Brazil - SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS (favelas)
- high urbanisation rates driven by an includ of RTU migrants = high natural increase
- influx of poor migrants looking for better life in city far outweighs supply of formal accommodation available, forcing them to illegally build their own housing in areas of land with essentially 0 economic value
- houses are constructed from makeshift materials e.g salvaged timber and tarpaulin
- overcrowded settlements with poor sanitation leads to fast spread of disease
- often not connected to public transport systems to city, leaving residents isolated from opportunity to escape poverty by earning a living
- poorest are often controlled by violent gangs
110
Urban challenges in Brazil -INFORMAL ECONOMY
- influx of RTU migrants into cities far outweighs the number jobs available in the formal economy
- forces migrants to generate their own form of economic activity to avoid poverty (e,g paratransit, street vending, street services)
- lack or of reliability in working hours + salary
- children are unnecessarily exposed to work-related risks at young ages, removing them from education
- however, informal sector works pay no income tax and can be innovative and entrepreneurial due to lack of regulations
- informal economy provides cheaper goods and services for the urban poor
111
urban challenges in Brazil - URBAN POLLUTION
- lack of mains sewers means sewage is discharged directly to the water or run down the streets in favelas
- lack of access to electricity means residents are reliant on fuel wood fro energy, releasing particulate air pollution
- rubbish piles up on streetsides
- population growing faster than road network can expand = congestion in cities = reduced air quality
- less developed countries have less environmental control over their factories = air pollution + discharge of waste directly into rivers
112
Urban challenges in Brazil - LOW QUALITY OF LIFE
- deprivation is common, and many don’t have a proper dîner, schooling or medical treatment
- hardships created by urban challenges such as pollution, lack of security employment and poor and congested housing leads to high deprivation and low QoL
113
What is sustainability in terms of urban living?
A situation in which urban residents can enjoy a high quality of life today, but in a way that doesn’t compromise the ability of future generations to do the same
114
Greenfield site
A site that has never been previously developed on or built. They are common on the urban rural fringe
115
advantages of building on a greenfield site
- no need to clear or decontaminate land b4 building = saves time + money
- lower pollution levels = healthier environment
- layout not constrained by previous developments so can be tailor-made for optimal efficiency and pleasantness
- cheap land far from core = increased profit for property developers = reduced house prices
116
disadvantages of building on a greenfield site
- loss of wildlife + habitats from urban sprawl
- air, noise and light pollution for surrounding countryside during and after construction
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Brownfield sites
A site that has previously been built on or developed, but may now he derelict
118
advantages of building on a brownfield site
- helps to revive old/disused urban areas
- located near to areas of main employment in CBD and inner city
- services and infrastructure such as mains, water, gas and electricity alr in place = reduced installation costs
119
disadvantages of building on a brownfield site
- higher levels of water + air pollution = less healthy environment
- traffic congestion in CBD + inner city can reduce accessibility
- often surrounded by rundown areas in need of regeneration, so may not appeal to wealthier people or businesses looking for relocation
120
Green belt policy
A ring of land around some UK towns and cities in which strict planning laws make it very hard to develop on the land - designed to stop urban sprawl
