Urban issues and challenges

Question 1

What are megacities?

Answer 1

Cities containing more than 10 million people

Question 2

Describe the rate of urbanisation in LICs

Answer 2

Highest rates of urbanisation in LICs in Africa and Asia. Majority of the population still lives in rural areas in LICs so the rate of rural-urban migration is high. Population of cities is younger so rate of natural increase is high.

Question 3

Describe the rate of urbanisation in HICs

Answer 3

Lower rates of urbanisation in HICs. Rate of urbanisation has slowed as the majority of the population already live in cities. Urban population is ageing so rate of natural increase also slows.

Question 4

Factors contributing to urbanisation

Answer 4

Migration (including push and pull factors)
Natural increase

Question 5

Describe how migration leads to urbanisation

Answer 5

Rural-urban migration. Most of these migrants are young. They migrate from countryside to cites because of pull factors (jobs, better education)

Question 6

Give examples of push and pull factors

Answer 6

Push factors - poor harvests leading to food shortages. Limited services (water, electricity, schools, health).
Pull factors - better paid employment, better access to services (water, electricity).
Push factors are disadvantages of the countryside. Pull factors are advantages of the city.

Question 7

Describe how natural increase contributes to urbanisation

Answer 7

Natural increase occurs when the birth rate is higher than the death rate. Young population in many cities leads to high rates of natural increase. Cities also have better health care than rural areas so death rates are lower and life expectancy is higher.

Question 8

Where are megacities expected to emerge in the future?

Answer 8

Asia, particularly China and India.

Question 9

Regional importance of Lagos

Answer 9

Most Nigerian manufacturing industry is located in Lagos and contains docks which provide raw materials for industry.

Question 10

National importance of Lagos

Answer 10

Lagos is a main financial centre for West Africa with lots of TNCs basing their headquarters in Lagos.

Question 11

International importance of Lagos

Answer 11

Lagos International Trade Fair has become a major international business forum, attracting representatives from across the continent.
Is also the 7th fastest growing city in the world.

Question 12

Population of Lagos

Answer 12

17 million

Question 13

Factors leading to population growth of Nigeria

Answer 13

Migration
Natural increase

Question 14

State the push and pull factors contributing to rural-urban migration in Lagos

Answer 14

Pull factors - Well-paid work with more job opportunities as there are more businesses. Nearest hospital is closer in Lagos, more schools for opportunities. Lagos is less dependant on agriculture for food

Push factors - Rural jobs are mainly farming which is a lot of work and pays poorly. Droughts and floods ruin soil leading to food insecurity. Lack of education and health services

Question 15

Describe reasons for natural increase in Lagos

Answer 15

Most migrants to the city are young, causing a high rate of natural increase.
Better health care leads to a lower death rate as life expectancy increases.

Question 16

State the social opportunities within Lagos

Answer 16

Access to services (health and education)
Access to resources (water supply and energy)

Question 17

Describe access to health as an opportunity in Lagos

Answer 17

Underfunded and crowded in Nigeria v greater access to doctors in Lagos. Can get to healthcare quickly to prevent serious health problems from developing. Divided into public and private sectors.

Question 18

Describe access to education as an opportunity in Lagos

Answer 18

10 universities in Lagos –> seen as a route to escape poverty
68% kids in secondary school Lagos v 60% kids in primary school Nigeria
Opportunites to get qualifications, making people more employable.
State schools are operated by Lagos State government and offers all children a basic education focusing on the first 9 years.

Question 19

Describe access to water supply as an opportunity in Lagos

Answer 19

75% in Lagos v 42% in rural Nigeria
Reliable in Lagos. Wells and boreholes are used to provide water.
Lagos Water corporation providing 12 million people with drinking water
More people have access to safe drinking water, fewer deaths at a young age.

Question 20

Describe access to energy as an opportunity in Lagos

Answer 20

80% of urban population rely on diesel generators.
Rural areas don’t have lighting and power.
Still face frequent power cuts.
2 new power stations are going to be built to light the streets at night.

Question 21

Describe how urban industrial areas act as a stimulus for economic development in Lagos

Answer 21

Lekki Free Trade Zone and Aje oil field
Encourages TNCs to base offices in Lagos –> Jobs are created for workers of all skills –>
People in the local community have more money to spend on services/education –> increases skilled workforce so higher demand for services and jobs –. Positive multiplier effect.
100,000 jobs created by Lekki Free Zone for people of all skills.

Question 22

Describe the formal economy in Lagos

Answer 22

Wider range of job opportunities in Lagos with higher pay, not found in rural areas.
Tertiary jobs - people earn more in formal sector, taxes are paid, local infrastructure is improved.

Question 23

Describe the benefits and challenges of the informal economy in Lagos

Answer 23

Employs 40% of the workforce.
Positives: Costs little to set up, use simple tools, labour intensive, allows uneducated people to earn money and improve their quality of life.
Negatives: Workers don’t pay taxes, work is often in dangerous conditions, no regulation. Government won’t be able to improve infrastructure for the increasing population

Question 24

Example of informal economy in Lagos

Answer 24

Olusosun rubbish dump. 500 people work there. Workers sort through 3,000 tonnes of waste, finding valuable items to sell.

Question 25

Explain how managing squatter settlements is a problem in Lagos

Answer 25

Lack of sanitation - Communal toilets are shared by 15 households. Lack of infrastructure so sewage ends up in water near houses. Diseases such as malaria spread easily. 75% of households occupy a single room. Limited supply of water - Most water comes from wells and boreholes which is usually contaminated. Only 11% have access to safe water. Lack of legal rights - Little in the way of security, not planned so not legally allowed. 2012 government started to evict people to make space for plans for 'Venice of Africa'. Poor health - Low life expectancies. Malaria, malnutrition, respiratory diseases due to poor sanitation and water quality.

Question 26

Describe Makoko

Answer 26

Densely populated. Lack of basic facilities and sanitation. Built on marshy land that no one else wants to build on, illegal. Houses are made of waste materials.

Question 27

Describe the problem of water supply in Lagos

Answer 27

Only 10% of pollution have access to safe piped water. Most people obtain water from wells or boreholes or buy it off street vendors which is usually untreated and may be contaminated. 2012 - Lagos State Water Regulatory Commission began trying to regulate street vendors and license boreholes to provide everyone with safe water. Drinking water in Lagos is often contaminated with chemicals and bacteria leading to dysentery and diarrhoea caused by the sewage that enters water supplies. Insufficient funding for the government, old infrastructure and poor planning means government can't provide clean water. Demand gap of 330 million gallons a day.

Question 28

Describe the problem of sanitation in Lagos

Answer 28

Most people use pit latrines as they don't have access to flushing toilets. Sewage either drains into the soil (contaminates groundwater) or enters open drains and rivers. This is an even larger issue in densely populated squatter settlements which are built over water.

Question 29

Describe the problem of providing energy in Lagos

Answer 29

Energy is a large issue with large organisations relying on back-up diesel generators due to frequent power cuts. Only 60% have access to energy.

Question 30

Describe the problem of providing access to healthcare in Lagos

Answer 30

Available but not always free, long queues. Investment in healthcare isn't keeping up with increasing population. At risk of dangerous diseases such as malaria. Vaccinations for children are available but have to be paid for.

Question 31

Describe the problem of providing access to education in Lagos

Answer 31

Free education for all younger children but some have to work for their families. Secondary schools are limited and have to be paid for. Not enough universities for the city. Industries work with universities to create relevant courses.

Question 32

Describe the problem of reducing unemployment in Lagos

Answer 32

Below 10% of people are unemployed. No unemployment benefit so people are forced to work in formal or illegally in the informal sector where no taxes are paid. Informal sector (40% of workforce) is often unregulated, poorly paid and dangerous working conditions. In 2016 the Employment Trust Fund provided loans to help people become self-employed.

Question 33

Describe the problem of reducing crime in Lagos

Answer 33

Crime rates are high particularly drugs, vandalism and theft. Violent clashes between gangs known as 'Area Boys'. Kidnapping is a threat for foreigners. Cyber-fraud and scams among the financial community in Lagos.

Question 34

Describe the problem of managing waste disposal in Lagos

Answer 34

City authorities only collect 40% of the 10,000 tons of rubbish produced daily. Waste is dumped in sites such as Olusosun. Only 12% of waste recycled . Waste piles up in poorer areas.

Question 35

Describe the problem of managing pollution in Lagos

Answer 35

Air pollution is 5x higher than recommended international limit mainly because of poorly maintained and unregulated vehicles. Water pollution is also a large issue due to poor infrastructure.

Question 36

Describe the problem of traffic congestion in Lagos

Answer 36

Average commuter spends 3 hours in traffic. Results in high levels of air pollution and causes businesses to lose money.

Question 37

Describe how traffic congestion is managed in Lagos

Answer 37

2003, Lagos government set up LAMATA to improve transport in the city. It introduced a bus rapid transit (BRT) system with a separate bus lane, transporting 200,000 commuters each day to the CBD on Lagos Island. A large fleet of danfos operate in the city. 2016, a new light railway opened, transporting 7x as many passengers as the BRT. Part of wider Strategic Transport Master Plan which aims to create an integrated transport system and a new airport.

Question 38

Example of how urban planning is improving quality of life for the urban poor (Makoko floating school)

Answer 38

Built in 2014. Hosts 60 children at a time. Also used as a community centre. Children in squatter settlements such as Makoko are often cut off from services. Education allows them to become more employable, ending the poverty cycle. School was also environmentally friendly and employed local unskilled workers. Transferable skills which allowed them to then go and build their own houses. School used local building materials and also collected and stored rainwater. It was destroyed by a storm in 2016. It acted as a small scale attempt (or prototype) yet could be scaled up to increase quality of life in the area. Floating platform rises and falls with sea level so therefore helpful for future with rising sea levels.

Question 39

National importance of London (within the UK)

Answer 39

Generates 30% of the UK's GDP Provides 5.8 million jobs.

Question 40

International importance of London

Answer 40

30 million tourists per year. London Stock Exchange is biggest in the world.

Question 41

How has national migration led to change in character of London

Answer 41

Young professionals move to London for work, leading to an increase in need for housing, especially flats and apartments e.g Battersea Power Station. Added to an increase in underground passengers in London, causing commuting to be regarded as stressful.

Question 42

How has international migration led to change in character of London?

Answer 42

Windrush generation to SE London, Brixton. Brought Caribbean culture and food. E.g. Brixton Market, reggae music. Migrants often settle in specific areas, forming cultural hubs such as Southall – Indian migrants – Bollywood cinema and Indian cuisine.

Question 43

Describe cultural mix, recreation and entertainment as opportunities in London

Answer 43

Gentrification has caused Bangladeshi families to move out, and young professionals to move in. These young professionals work in industries such as art and finance. Spitafields market is now a popular shopping area. Brick Lane Jazz Festival. Street art attracts tourists

Question 44

Describe the integrated transport system as an opportunity in London

Answer 44

London underground and buses - 75 million people per week Oyster card - fast payment method that can be used across all public transport. Congestion charging zone - £15 daily fee travelling in central zone, encourages more people to use public transport. Crossrail (Elizabeth line) launched in 2022 and connects London to the suburbs. The number of rail passenger journeys increased by 10%. Brings an extra 1.5 million people within a 45 minute journey of central London, allowing more people to commute to work.

Question 45

Describe the environmental opportunity of urban greening in London

Answer 45

47% of London is green space. Royal parks such as Hyde Park 700 green roof tops 13,000 wildlife species in London Trees produce oxygen, reduce global warming by absorbing carbon dioxide. Trees and hedging absorb harmful pollutants, reducing illness and emissions circulating.

Question 46

Describe how deprivation and inequality is a challenge in London

Answer 46

2 million in poverty in London Kensington and Chelsea (one of richest boroughs) outperforms Newham (most deprived) on all deprivation indicators. Kensington - unemployment is 4% Newham - unemployment is 9.4% Lower life expectancy in Newham linked to poor diet, housing, lack of employment

Question 47

Describe the challenge of waste disposal in London

Answer 47

Almost a quarter of London's waste goes to landfill, which contributes to the production of methane and climate change. Plan to reach target of sending zero waste to landfill by 2030. London's waste is now recycled or incinerated to generate electricity.

Question 48

Statistics to show reasons for building on rural-urban fringe

Answer 48

Population grows by 100,000 every year but only 20,000 new residencies are built.

Question 49

Describe the challenge of dereliction in London

Answer 49

Created by the decline of the manufacturing industry in London. Creates brownfield sites.

Question 50

Describe the issues and benefits of building on brownfield sites


Answer 50

Issues - Land may need to be decontaminated Land is more expensive in urban areas due to high demand Demolition of old buildings may be required Benefits - Reduces urban sprawl Less need for cars because of better public transport links New developments can improve the environment Sites are available since the decline of industry

Question 51

Describe the issues and benefits of building on greenfield sites


Answer 51

Issues - Poorer transport links so more people need to use cars Urban sprawl increases Natural habitats destroyed Unlikely to change back to the countryside after being built on Valuable farmland lost Benefits - No demolition or decontamination needed Land is cheaper in rural areas

Question 52

Describe the impacts of urban sprawl on green belt land


Answer 52

Green belt land helps to protect farmland and woodland around London However with the rising demand for housing, some people argue that less valuable green belt land should be repurposed as greenfield sites so that housing can be built.

Question 53

Describe the impacts of urban sprawl on rural urban fringe

Answer 53

Loss of habitat leading to reduced biodiversity Increased congestion/ air and noise pollution due to commuter traffic Loss of green space Increased flooding due to impermeable surfaces House prices rise and population increases, causing locals to move out Example: commuter town of Reading

Question 54

Describe why urban regeneration was needed in the area of the Olympic park (Lower Lea Valley)


Answer 54

Much of the area was derelict or occupied by low-value land uses. It was a former industrial area and one of the poorest and most deprived areas of London. Low income housing and polluted waterways

Question 55

Describe what had to happen to prepare the site for regeneration (Olympic Park)

Answer 55

Land was purchased by ODA. Existing landowners and users had to leave the site by 2007. Some protested. Land was decontaminated before building could begin. Electricity pylons had to be removed and overhead cables buried. Bridges over waterways were built to improve access.

Question 56

Describe the impacts of the project (both long and short term)

Answer 56

Economic: Olympic Games were a £9 billion investment. Athletes' Village was converted into new homes. Half for private rent and half for affordable rent. Improved infrastructure: high-speed trains, Stratford International Station, 9 train lines 18,000 new jobs created Social: Education: Chobham Academy Secondary school, UCL campus Sporting facilities: Velodrome, Aquatics Centre Environmental: 8000 trees planted Rainwater is recycled Recycled materials used to build River Lee rewilded

Question 57

Describe water conservation as part of sustainable living in the East Village

Answer 57

Water use is 50% less than an average urban area through water recycling. Rainwater is filtered and cleaned naturally in ponds by reed beds before being pumped uphill to be used for flushing toilets and irrigation systems.

Question 58

Describe energy conservation as part of sustainable living in East Village

Answer 58

Energy use is 30% less than an average urban area. A combined heat and power (CHP) system is used which generates heat as a by-product of electricity generation. This heat is then used for hot water and piped underground East Village.

Question 59

Describe waste recycling as part of sustainable living

Answer 59

Reduction in the use of plastic bags in the UK caused by charging for their use has greatly reduced waste of packaging materials. Biogas digesters convert organic food and garden waste into gas.

Question 60

Describe creating green spaces as part of sustainable living in East Village

Answer 60

10 hectares of green open space within a total area of 27 hectares. Wetland area with ponds where water is recycled. Green roofs on top of apartment blocks.

Question 61

Describe how urban transport strategies are used to reduce traffic congestion


Answer 61

Integrated transport systems Congestion charge in London reduces number of cars driving Enabling more cyclists on the road: Network of cycle routes in Bristol