Vertebrate Locomotion

Question 0

Describe cartilage

Answer 0

Nb for shock absorbing, anti friction, light weight with a fixed form (but capable of being deformed)

Question 1

Describe the importance of bone

Answer 1

Durable, adaptable (get thicker with exercise), function while forming and bone marrow acts as shock absorbers

Question 2

Difference between red and white muscles

Answer 2

Red muscles are hardworking, with more mitochondria and blood vessels. White muscles are good for short bursts of activity but poorly vascularised and not a lot of blood, so not endurance

Question 3

What do tendons doa.

Answer 3

Transmit force from a muscle to a smaller area. Links muscle to bone and keeps muscles close to body core, while allow the force of muscles to be effective at a distal region. Requires energy.

Question 4

What do ligaments do.

Answer 4

Bind bone to bone- hold skeleton together. White (no mitochondria) so no associated energy costs. Restricts movement

Question 5

Three types of joints

Answer 5

Hinge joint-limit movement to one plane (knee)
Ball and socket join - allows for more movement but lots of muscles
Pivot joint (radius and ulna) allows rotation. Lots of muscle

Question 6

What does flying movement require

Answer 6

Wings develop enough lift to overcome gravity force and have adaptations that reduce body mass

Question 7

Describe the energy costs of locomotion

Answer 7

Animal designs are based on selection for energy efficiency energy costs depends of mode of locomotion and environment. Swimmers require less energy- water supports them

Question 8

How would one increase force of arm pushing on table?

Answer 8

Increase Fi (grow a bigger tricep)
Increase Li (lengthen arm where muscle attaches)
Shorten Lo (arm that has hand)

Question 9

Name elements of horse that are energy saving

Answer 9

Nucchal ligament acts as an antigravity mechanism (no cost to hold up its head)
Big head to accommodate last masticatory complex because it needs to eat a lot of low quality food
Ligamentous sling in hoof: suspensory ligaments store Ep as they stretch when foot hits floor. A foot is lifted, the Ep is converted to Ek and the leg is flung forward

Question 10

Name ways of increasing stride length

Answer 10

Incorporating scapula into leg length
Lengthening of distal elements 
Incorporated foot into stride 
Include an unsupported interval (prey have one  predators have two- extended and flexed)
Spinal extension (prey has rigid spine which means less energy is expended to hold it up, therefore more endurance. Vertebrate are also interlocked. Predators have flexible spines which allow for explosive movement but no endurance)
Muscle mechanics- horses have tongue and groove joints, cheetahs have no hinge joints, meaning they can make fast turns

Question 11

Describe plantigrade, digitigrade and unguligrade

Answer 11

Plantigrade- flat foot (human)
Digitigrade - walking on toes (humans)
Unguligrade - walking on nails (horses)

Question 12

Describe some evolutionary things a cheetah has

Answer 12

Tail as counter balance, eyes to the front (3D and binocular vision), short rib cage which tapers off before abdominal region (allows them to curl up when running). Can decelerate very fast (nice turns) and sensation of velocities increases speed.

Question 13

Describe kangaroos

Answer 13

Saltatorial, ricochetal, cursorial mammals. Tremendous lengthening of tibia and fibula, large tail for counter balance. Small head and thorax to prevent interference
Gastrocnemius and plantans tendons (very elastic)

Question 14

Describe elephants

Answer 14

Graviportal (weight bearing), digitigrade- walks on toes but flat foot is made from cushioning pad of fat and tissue.
Don’t bend limbs at point of impact or else shear is too much
Columnar limbs decrease shear force
Deflection of olecranon backwards allows elboŵ to open up straight
Toes are retained to spread eight evenly over cushioning pads

Question 15

Name three hypothesis for evolution of flight

Answer 15

Arboreal : climb into tree and escape by leaping from branch to branch. SmAll modifications allowed them to glide
Wing-assisted incline running: easier and faster running to escape predators
Jesus Christ hypothesis: use wings to help across water

Question 16

What is a gizzard?

Answer 16

A muscular bag that replaced teeth mastication. Has stones in it to crush seeds

Question 17

Name some adaptations to flight

Answer 17

Air cavities in bones make them lighter (pneumatised)
Retains humerus and ulna
Synsacrum is fused to spinal chord
Uncinate processes add strength and rigidity to rib cage area and aid in breathing

Question 18

Describe point of alula

Answer 18

A small thumb with 3-4 little feathers. As bird lands, the wings turn up which increases pressure. The alula then lift up automatically to restore laminar flow over the wing (which is essential to generate lift)

Question 19

Bernoullis theory with birds

Answer 19

At wing tips, the high pressure tries to cancel low pressure which makes vortices