Vietnam Flashcards
(114 cards)
1
Q
What was formed in 1947?
A
Joint Chiefs of Staff. SecDef, CIA, NSA formed in the 1947 National Security Act
2
Q
Who inspired the containment policy?
A
George Kennan
3
Q
What in 1949 increased US fear of the Vietminh?
A
Communist victory in China’s civil war heightened American fears of the Vietminh
4
Q
What did Eisenhower fail to do in 1954?
A
Conflict escalation between France and Vietnam - Eisenhower would permit intervention if preconditions were met - when met, he failed to act - Dienbienphu fell to the Vietminh on 7 May 1954
5
Q
What happened to the role of military advisors in 64?
A
− Role of military advisors translated to combatants
6
Q
What was the Gulf of Tonkin incident and what did it lead to?
A
− Passage of the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution – August 7th 1964 – provided authorisation for LBJ to use military force in Asia following the Tonkin Incident – naval engagement of the Maddox with North Vietnamese ships.
7
Q
Detail troop influx between 1965-8
A
1965- 184,300 troops in Vietnam, more on the way 1966 – 385,000 1967 – 485,600 1968 – 534,700
8
Q
What was 1967 - Operation Cedar
A
- 20 miles NW of Saigon - Destruction of NFL infrastructure - Slash and burn tactics - Artillery, explosives, levelling villages etc
9
Q
What is the significance of the Tet Offensive?
A
1968 – Tet Offensive was one of the most important events of the Vietnam War, but revisionist and orthodox accounts vary sharply on its meaning. They disagree on fundamental points: which side “won” why? What were the political-military results of the battle of Tet?
10
Q
Detail the economic situation in 1974
A
1974 - At the same time, South Vietnam’s perennial economic and political problems had been sharply aggravated, in part as a result of the American withdrawal. Loss of the $400 million which the United States spent annually in South Vietnam, the reduction of American military aid from $2.3 billion in 1973 to about $1 billion in 1974, and a sharp rise in worldwide inflation combined to produce an annual inflation rate of 90 percent, massive unemployment, a drastic decline in morale in the armed forces and among the urban population, and an increase in the ever present corruption
11
Q
What was the changing role of the military advisor, from pre-Kennedy to LBJ?
A
- At the start of Kennedy’s administration - ~700 - By Dallas, 1963 – 16,000 - By 1964, under LBJ, 23,000 - ‘Advisors’ were field ops, essentially military - Advised escalation to Kennedy on several occasions
12
Q
What were the ARVN?
A
Army of the Republic of Vietnam – soldiers domestic to the South, who were to undergo Vietnamisation.
13
Q
Who were the Vietcong?
A
The Viet Cong, like their Viet Minh forerunners, liked to operate at night and in the bush; the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN), with its formidable U.S.-supplied firepower, was afraid of the darkness and the jungle, just as the French Union forces had been.
14
Q
Detail Ngo Dihn Diem
A
Unpopular Catholic President of Vietnam, dwarfed in popularity by Ho Chi – assassinated in US backed coup d’etat in 1963
15
Q
What faith was Kennedy?
A
Catholic
16
Q
Provide some background information about LBJ
A
− Often accused as the primary warmonger in Vietnam, essentially caused the first wave of escalation with the Rolling Thunder project of 1965. − Committed to continuing the efforts of JFK, tried desperately not to lose face in Vietnam (even if commitment was questionable) − Recognised the problems of waging limited war. Their determination to exercise restraint on the battleground and at home was evident in Johnson’s statement of July 28, 1965, in which he announced an open-ended commitment of US forces − LBJ’s determination to avoid a larger war was a mistake – Chinese threat suggested by revisionists = not substantiated − Believed TV reporting undermined support for his war at home and would have had the same effect during WWII
17
Q
Who was Walter Lippmann?
A
Renowned columnist who had partial influence on the government
18
Q
Provide some background for Nixon
A
− Republican, President from 1969-1974 − “ I’m not going to end up like LBJ,” he observed in November after his electoral victory, “holed up in the White House afraid to show my face on the street. I’m going to stop that war. Fast.” − Initiated the Cambodia campaign – highly controversial − Pursued policy of Vietnamization
19
Q
Provide some background for Kissinger
A
− Proponent of Realpolitik, key agent in Détente, instrumental in opening China. Credited with achieving ceasefire in Vietnam
20
Q
What is diplomatic history?
A
The history of international relations
21
Q
What is the madman theory?
A
The madman theory was a feature of Richard Nixon’s foreign policy. He and his administration tried to make the leaders of hostile Communist Bloc nations think Nixon was irrational and volatile. According to the theory, those leaders would then avoid provoking the United States, fearing an unpredictable American response.
22
Q
What are the Hawks and Doves?
A
Hawks encouraged war, whereas doves desired disengagement. Women tended towards dove position – alongside anti-nuclear sentiment and civil rights
23
Q
Revisionist position: Lost Cause
A
Defeat was a stab-in-the-back - America was undermined by popular media and disruption
24
Q
Revisionist Position: The First Lost Victory
A
US failed to use its power effectively in the early 1960s, resultantly, it became harder to support a corrupt regime and to desist an aggressive North.
25
Revisionist Position: Necessary War
Involvement in Vietnam was vital to US national security.
26
Revisionist Position: Strategy for Defeat
Civilian-directed strategy of 1965-8 failed to follow the classic tenets of effective strategy. Johnson and McNamara placed limitations on the military leadership, which denied an opportunity to achieve victory and instead led to a stalemate
27
Revisionist Position: Hearts and Minds
The emphasis on counter-insurgency ignored the importance of securing the South Vietnamese countryside and winning the loyalty of the peasantry
28
Revisionist Position: The Second Lost Victory
US actually won the war a second time after 1968, but that achievement was squandered by an irresolute Congress and demoralised public.
29
Defenders of the necessity of war - Michael Lind – Vietnam: The Necessary War
Most comprehensive account of necessity of war
30
Defenders of the necessity of war - Mark Moyar – Triumph Forsaken: the Vietnam War
- US objectives were realistic and were attained – but lost
31
Defenders of the necessity of war - William Westmoreland – A Soldier Reports
Strategy employed in Vietnam was too constrained to achieve victory
32
Defenders of the necessity of war - Colonel Harry Summers – On Strategy
Military and civilian leaders failed
33
Who were the VVAW?
Vietnam Veterans Against the War (VVAW)" - stated war crimes in My Lai, although discounted, "VVAW's presence in Washington D.C. During several days of spring demonstrations brought increased notoriety and legitimacy to the movement"
34
What were the Pentagon papers?
The Pentagon Papers, exposed by the NYT, damaged govt credibility - documents showed that US leaders ignored international agreements, manipulated Saigon governments, and lied to Congress and the public - this finally provided the smoking gun which supported critics' assertions of the deception in Vietnam.
35
What supported the second lost victory proposal?
Nixon & Kissinger – Memoirs Lewis Sorley - A Better War: The Unexarnined Victories and Final Tragedy of America's Last Years in Vietnam Comprehensive statement of the lost victory claim Robert Elegant – How to Lose a War Indicts the writing of his contemporaries in distorting the coverage of war
36
Examples of orthodoxy (dovish / illegal/ immoral position)
- George Herring’s America’s Longest War - William Turley’s The Second Indochina War - Marilyn Blatt Young The Vietnam Wars 1945-1990 - George Donelson Moss’s Vietnam: An American Ordeal - William Duiker’s U.S. Containment Policy and the Conflict in Indochina - David L Anderson’s The Vietnam War
37
What is the flawed containment principle? (orthodoxy)
US National Security was not on the line in Vietnam – containment was misapplied
38
Unwinnable War (orthodoxy)
American military effort was undermined by the forces of history and the resident political disparity between ally and enemy- “What was wrong in backing a weak, corrupt, inefficient regime against a brutally powerful, fanatically puritanical, ruthlessly efficient adversary, was that our side was likely to lose.”
39
Rational Disengagement (orthodoxy)
The Tet Offensive was a military and political defeat for America and South Vietnam, revealing the hopelessness of the war. War wariness justifies the downturn in support
40
Nixon’s Flawed Strategy (orthodoxy)
Nixon’s promise of peace with honor was not and could not be achieved. The 1973 Paris Peace Accords left a weak and divided South Vietnam which was not the basis for a lasting peace. Congressional decision to not get involved beyond 1973 was the rational choice.
41
What is the orthodox position?
- War was unwinnable, and fought on false pretences - First wave of historical thought, authored at the time of the conflict
42
What is the revisionist position?
- War was not unwinnable, however elements within and without the state conspired in order to undermine the war effort – chief among these being the attitude of Congress, the military decisions made, the impact of media, grassroots activism. - Tended to be of the ranks of the men who supported the war at the time – characters such as General Westmoreland. Hawkish argument predominates these articles - Not all revisionists are Clauswitzians. Hearts and minds interpretation – unlike Clauswitzians (and their focus on North Vietnam
43
Schulzinger (4)
1- The Vietnam war was not about Vietnam for the Americans who fought in it and opposed it. It was strictly a Cold War affair 2- CW alone however cannot justify the procession of the VW – maintenance of US credibility was also an important factor, and one which was challenged by the democratic elements of the state 3- Nixon won the presidency by focusing on the frustrations Americas felt towards the liberal agenda of the 1960s – domestic reform, civil rights, and the involvement in Vietnam to contain the Soviet Union. 4- Why did Nixon not end the VW in 1969? “Nixon, Kissinger, Defense Secretary Melvin Laird – nearly everyone in power from 1969 to 1973 – still thought the CW mattered as it had for the previous twenty years” Credibility was still very important.
44
Preston
1- Emphasises the failings of National Security Advisors – specifically, McGeorge Bundy “Just as Bundy embodied the Kennedy and Johnson administrations’ intelligence, drive and sophistication, he also epitomised their hubris, blind ambition, and overconfidence” 2- The main challenge of the Vietnam War is to distinguish contingency from structural issues 3- 1961-5, Bundy and NSC moved quickly and effectively to squash dissent and limit the president’s choice to a very narrow one. Bundy critical to elevating the profile of the NSA to the level of a cabinet secretary. 4- Under Truman and Eisenhower, the Special Assastant (Sec of NSA) was an administrative position. A facilitator, not a formulator. 5- Bundy, with assistance from Rostow, changed this arrangement – reformulated the NSA into a “Little State Department” 6- Bundy was initially more active in Cuba, Berlin, nuclear strategy – but equally adamant on containment 7- Other important individuals – Rostow, Komer, Forrestal – emphatic believers in containment 8- War in Vietnam could not have happened without full Presidential support 9- The Tet offensive was a decisive blow to the US effort in Vietnam
45
Ernst May (1)
1- Members of the Truman administration believed, axiomatically, that the advance of communism on the Korean peninsula represented a grave threat to US national security.
46
Longevall - Embers of War (5)
1- Kennedy changed over time – being more cognisant of the nationalistic impulse in Vietnam to converging on the orthodox domino theory 2- Was however sceptical about military intervention – resisting aide advice to go full on in Vietnam 3- Then again, MACV (Military Assistance Command Vietnam) superseded MAAG (Military Assistance Advisory Group) with a three-star general, Paul D. Harkins, in command. 1962 saw influx of military materials 4- Sino-Soviet split well underway in 1960, which the intelligence apparatus was aware of – nonetheless, few adjustments were made at the highest levels 5- Ultimately, Kennedy and Johnson found what their predecessors in the White House as well as a long line of leaders in the French Fourth Republic had found: that in Vietnam, the path of least immediate resistance, especially in domestic political terms, was to stand firm, to maintain the commitment, and to press on, in the hope that somehow things would turn out fine.
47
Kimball, Nixon's War (4)
1 -Nixon expressed in 1953 the fear that Japan would go Communist if Asia was allowed to fall. 2 -Nixon was more the strategist, Kissinger the tactician 3 -Nixon’s policy in Vietnam was madman, not triangular diplomacy 4 -Cambodian bombing and invasion, the bombing of Laos and North Vietnam, the numerous threats to the Soviets and North Vietnamese, and Linebacker I and II - all of which were attempts to terrorise the other side into compliance - failed to lever the substantive concessions from Hanoi and the PRG that Nixon and Kissinger had sought.
48
Hunt - Lyndon Johnson's War (5)
1- Had a deeper and more subtle understanding of Vietnam developed, American policymakers might have discovered that the identity of interest between paternalistic Americans and willing Vietnamese pupils did not exist. 2- An exit from Vietnam for Kennedy would have proved an arduous and dangerous task 3- Even in Kennedy transcended his cult of toughness and anti-communism, would’ve been a tough walk-back – Eisenhower lost China, if Kennedy lost Vietnam, he would have been the second democratic president to lose abroad, valuable Asian real estate 4- Johnson was restrained from full-scale offensive as such risked all out war. 5- Johnson must bear primary responsibility for the war – nationalist ideas, code of manliness, Cold War faith, drove poor decisions. Operated ignorant of Vietnamese and with lukewarm public support
49
Hess
1 - The Vietnam war shattered the morality-power link – much of the anti-war position rested on moral objections 2- Revisionism enshrines American power to point of dismissing its limitations and re-establishes the link between power and morality 3- The Orthodox opinion for the mistaken over necessary war is more convincing – it does more fully recognise Vietnamese history and the power balance within the country, and because it does rest on more sophisticated understanding o American capabilities and of the nature of credibility. Revisionists are not far off in realising the significance of South-East Asia as the focal point of global contradictions 4- Key “what if” situations - Kennedy had lived - Johnson focused on negotiations - US had capitalised on the strength of South Vietnam, had stood by Diem, and responded forcefully to North Vietnam’s initial acts of warfare 5- The revisionist ‘if-only’ retrospective formula for victory does not withstand close scrutiny. The limited war of counter-insurgency in the jungles of Vietnam cannot fit into the Clausewitzian model. Apart from Westmoreland, nobody believed in the viability of a war of attrition 6- The media did not lose the war – its coverage of the war mirrored more than it changed, public opinion. Journalists were representative of Americans of their generation: committed to the imperatives of the CW in the mid-1960s, generally supportive of a war waged in the name of containing communism.
50
Herring (5)
1- The downfall was exaggerated by the immediate withdrawal of support, politically and economically, during the period 2- From the standpoint of the Vietnamese, the Paris accords merely established a new framework for continuing the struggle without direct American participation 3- As part of the Paris package, the United States had agreed to provide Hanoi $4.7 5 billion in aid for reconstruction. On several occasions in the spring of 1973, Nixon threatened to withhold the funds unless North Vietnam adhered to the letter of the agreements, and he eventually suspended talks on postwar aid in protest against continued infiltration into South Vietnam and intensification of the fighting in Cambodia. The President and Kissinger also sought to keep alive the threat of American military intervention. 4- Without the continued large infusion of American funds and equipment, the armed forces could not fight the way the Americans had trained them. 5- The American withdrawal revealed in microcosm much of the delusion, the frustration, and the tragedy that had marked the American experience in Vietnam. U.S. officials persisted in the belief that South Vietnam would mount an effective defense until the North Vietnamese were at the gates of Saigon
51
Hall
1- Rolling Thunder, a measure taken to roll back NFL success, ultimately provided a unifying point of reference for a loose collection of anti-American stakeholders actuating in a strong anti-American solidarity 2- Resignation of Nixon was troubling - Ford's subsequent commitment to follow in N's footsteps was met with no consensus. 3- Americans were shocked at the speed of South Vietnam's collapse, but were resigned to the outcome and were no longer persuaded that Vietnam involved vital. National interests. Congress rejected President Ford's request for 300 million $ in military aid the day Ban Me Thuot fell. 4- "By viewing Vietnam's struggle for liberation in narrow Cold War terms, the US mistakenly attributed its local origins to international Communism"
52
Gilbert
DRV could not hope to win the rhetorical battle against the North - the democracy was rigged, ("sold offices of the state"), its army was forced to live off the people in a manner more random and often more brutal than the Viet Cong, it could not launch a march North due to American intervention, and relied on the support of foreign troops.
53
Halberstam
Quagmire thesis – 1963 – US waded into a quagmire which it found harder and harder to escape.
54
Andrew Krepinevich & Larry Cable (5)
1 – US waged a conventional war which ignored the real enemy 2 – Conventional warfare actually strengthened the communists’ position in rural South Vietnam 3 – Marines’ pacification program offered a model that would have worked throughout Vietnam 4 – Army tactic of creating refugees, contrary to its rationale, weakened South Vietnamese government 5 – Commitment to pacification
55
What did McNamara say in retrospect?
− Robert McNamara – In Retrospect – Escalation in Vietnam was “terribly wrong”
56
What did Kennedy comment about Vietnam in 1961?
− Kennedy, 1961 - "If [Vietnam] were ever converted into a white man's war, we would lose it as the French had lost a decade earlier."
57
what did Bernard Fall – French Historian on Indochina comment?
− On Sept. 2 4, 1965, the United States flew 167 bombers against North Vietnamese targets, dropping 235 tons of bombs and simultaneously flew '317 bomber sorties 'in country' [South Vietnam], dropping 270 tons of bombs. − Fall, on US: "dreaming different dreams than the French but walking in the same footsteps."
58
What was Eisenhower's domino theory?
− "You have a row of dominoes set up, you knock over the first one, and what will happen to the last one is the certainty that it will go over very quickly. So you could have a beginning of a disintegration that would have the most profound influences”
59
What was a common comment about the Vietnam war?
Best reported but least understood war
60
**Stalemate Thesis**
What is the Stalemate thesis, who proposed it?
**Stalemate Thesis**
The argument that no president wanted to be the president to lose the first war, proposed by **L Gelb** and **R. Betts**)
61
**Commitment Trap**
What was it?
**Commitment Trap**
The notion that presidents found it hard to roll back the efforts of former presidents in their commitment to Vietnam
62
**Shared Responsibility**
What is the argument for shared responsibility, who promulgates it?
**Shared Responsbility**
Argued for by **Vaughn Davis Bornet**, claiming it to be unfair to place the blame solely at the feet of the president. Also consider the JCS, NSA, CIA and defense department.
63
**COIN**
What does S. **Santon** argue about the nature of conflict during the war?
**COIN**
An effective counter-repost to counter-insurgency was not formulated in enough time.
64
What was Roosevelt's intention for French Indochina?
Generation of an international trusteeship which would provide US opportunity to station ships in the region.
65
What drove early policy on Vietnam?
* Truman's desire to show a firm hand in the face of being a new, non-elected President drove a hardline on foreign policy.
* Employed Dean Acheson as SecDef - took stanch position on standing up to communists
66
What did Ho Chi Minh comment about the prospect of Chinese interference?
"Colonialism is dying. The white man is finished in Asia. But if the Chinese stay now, they will never go. I prefer to sniff French shit for five years than eat Chinese shit for the rest of my life"
67
What had Truman given the French in Indochina by the end of 1950?
MAAG - the Military Assistance Advisory Group - of 15
* $100 million
* Aircraft
* Patrol boats
* Napalm
* Combat machinery
68
Truman's motivations for supporting the French, according to Orthodoxy?
Orthodox historians, such as Herring (1979), Schulzinger (1997), and Duiker (2000), considered Truman's involvement in Vietnam to be part of his containment strategy. Having told the American
public in his Truman Doctrine speech of 1947 that the world was divided into two very different spheres, and indicated that some kind of conflict was inevitable, there was great public pressure (Blum, 1982) on Truman to continue to hold the line against any
Communist advance.
69
Truman's motivation for supporting the French, according to Kolko?
Markets and raw materials of South East Asia that motivated Roosevelt then Truman's interest in Vietnam
70
What is Anderson's post-revisionist perspective on US involvement?
Geopolitical, economic, domestic US politics, cultural arrogance.
71
What earlier flashpoint illuminated US interest in Vietnam?
The fall of Dienbienphu - Eisenhower went to congress to declare that the US 'must not lose Asia'. $385 went to France.
72
What was Eisenhower's policy stance?
Go beyond Truman's containment, push forward **rollback**
73
Who was an 'exceptionally important figure' in shaping the early years of the CW and Vietnam?
John Foster Dulles - militantly anti-communist Christian - 'the high priest of the Cold War'
- 'the most unapologetically religous man to superintend foreign policy since Woodrow Wilson'
- Active agent in rejecting Geneva accords + helping Diem
74
What conditioned JFK's stance on Vietnam?
Religious values - staunch Catholicism which vehmently opposed the precepts of communist 'Godless' rule
75
McNamara's failing?
Disregarded the history of Vietnam to focus on statistical analysis
76
How many advisors at the time of Kennedy's accession?
800
Kennedy resisted calls for military interventiom, but did let the number of advisors bloom.
At this time, South Vietnam had 250,000 soldiers, compared to some 12,000 VC
77
What replaced MAAG?
MACV - Military Assistance Command, Vietnam
78
What continued Kennedy's direction to a strong degree?
LBJ's desire to not deviate from the policy of the man who held popular mandate
79
What is the gender reading behind Johnson's escalation?
Macho Texas background - a man who would seek military solutions to problems.
80
What did Johnson order, and what did it conclude?
- Independent and anti-communist South Vietnam was vital to US
- Reiterated domino theory
- American prestige, honour and credibility were at stake
- Escalation necessary to maintain Saigon
- Heavier bombing until the North capitulates
81
How many approved of Rolling Thunder?
67%
82
What was Westmoreland's position?
A war of attrition, leveraging advanced technology and firepower, would invariably win.
83
What is important to note?
* US people firmly in support of Vietnam to start with
* 3 elections were held during the war - none put Vietnam at the centre of their issues
84
Describe advancements in American ordinance during the course of the war
* Cluster bombs - 350-600 separate bombs deployed in one payload
* Transition to fibreglass - making detection of injuries harder (cannot detect via X-Rays)
* Development/ advancement in heat-seeking weaponry
85
What was operation phoenix?
CIA led initiative in 1968, interrogation of tens of thousands of VC - torture used.
86
What did American strategy not account for\>
Determination of VC forces - who were willing to endure harsh conditions in fields/ tunnels/ exposure to disease/ infections
87
Which countries did the Ho Chi Minh trail cut through?
Cambodia and Laos
88
Why was the Trail so resilient?
Was never one trail - several branches - and had several thousand women maintaining the line. In the event of American bombing, the road would be diverted and repaired.
89
How many of the Vietnamese population had been relocated as a result of American efforts in the country?
* 1/3 of pop.
* Placed into primitive camps, with poor sanitation
90
What transformations occurred in Saigon during the American intervention?
* Rise of drug trade
* Rise of prostitution
* Preference for American clients
* Distortion of economy through injection of dollars
* A Vietnamese waiter serving Americans would earn more than a doctor.
*
91
What was the composition fhe US army vis-a-vis vounteering, military, drafting contributions?
26.8 million men of fighting age in 1960s
* 10.93 million served in the military
* 2.2 million were drafted
* 8.7 million were volunteers
* Driven by patriotism, sense of duty, family tradition or a belief in the rectitude of the American cause.
92
CIA report concerning Search and Destroy missions?
"Less than one percent of nearly two million Alled small unit operaitons conducted in the last two eyars in contact with the enemy'
93
What did McNamara conclude concerning US tactics in *In Retrospect?*
US tactics of high-tech war of attrition against primairly guerrilla force that never considered giving up their war for independence.
94
**Operation Cedar Falls**
What happened during Operation Cedar Falls in 1967?
20 American Battalions entered North Saigon
* defoliants, bombing, bulldozers cleared the land - six thousand people were evacuated from their homes and their land was destroyed.
* This made 'friendly' or neutral civilians more sympathetic to the cause of the VC
95
What has **Pach** outlned about the Tet offensive, regarding TV coverage?
Finds no evidence to suggest that TV reporting had a negative impact on public opinion and therefore consider that it ddid not affect the outcome of the war.
96
Popular bumper sticker
"Win or get out"
97
**The collapse of the homefront**
What was the situation in 1964, in terms of protests?
* Protests in 1964 - Yale university rejection of escalation - however does not deny the near universal support for the Gulf of Tonkin resolution
98
**The collapse of the homefront**
What anti-war protests arose in 1965?
* Teach-ins - antiwar lectures and debates
* 20,000 participants in Berkley
* However 1/4 of Yale pop. signed pro-Johnson petitions
* 25,000 march on washington
* Quaker father and daughter set on fire outside McNamara's window in the pentagon
* 8000 in Oakland clashed with police and vandalised cars and buildings
99
**The collapse of the homefront**
What protests existed in 1966?
* Democratic Party - suffered sharp defeat in Nov 1966 - congressmen blamed Vietnam. Urged Johnson to end the war before it damaged the Great Society.
* "Hey hey LBJ, ow many boys have you killed today?"
* Westmoreland complained the media presented the VC cause too positively.
100
**The collapse of the homefront**
Protests 1967
* Escalating congressional pressure
* MLK pressure - publically critical, played on emotive imagery (burning children)
* Negative response to increased taxation
* Influential TV channels and news outlets changed position in 1967
* Stats are misleading
* 46% - felt commitment was a mistake, however massive majority wanted to remain + become tougher
* 25% did not oppose using nuclear weapons
101
Reasons for Johnson's failure?
* Establishment of a viable South Vietnamese state was beyond the powers of the U.S.
* Real escalation impossible due to China
* Limted and ineffective war to support unpopular regime
102
What was Nixon's stance on military involvement in Vietnam during Johnson's administration?
* Critiqued scale - desired greater escalation
* Appeared least likely to advocate withdrawal - severely criticised the anti-war protestors - 'traitorous minorities'
103
What policy did Nixon come to advocate following the Tet offensive?
Increased utility of south Vietnamese soldiers - Vietnamisation
104
What influenced the change in Nixon's perception of Communism?
- As there was no longer a monolithic communist bloc - therefore the president could replace the era of confrontation with the era of negotiation.
105
What was the slogan attached to withdrawal from Vietnam?
Withdrawal with peace and honour
106
What did Nixon offer to the Soviets in the early 1970s?
Normalisation of diplomatic relations
107
How did Nixon attempt to temper the anti-Vietnam movement domestically?
Nixon judged that the hear to fht eanti-war movement was male college sutdnets threatened with the draft. He therefore adjusted it so that older students were less hard hit. This temporarily decreased protests and Nixon got a 71% approval rating.
* Acted secretly - i.e. bombing cambodia
108
Whad did Kimball feel about Nixon's agenda in Vietnam?
despite electioneering promises, Nixon had no new Vietnam policy and never really developed one. He and Kissinger constructred *ad hoc* and often contradictory strategies in reaction to events. The madman theory was the closest thing resembling a consistent approach. 'The use of insanity as an instrument of diplomacy is at best a contradiction in terms and at worst dangerous brinksmanship that could rebound disasterously in a crisis'
109
Disputations on the notion of 'peace with honour'
* Small 1999 - peace with honour could have been achieved in 1969
* Kimball - because of his faith in mad strategies and triangular diplomacy, he had unnecessarily prolonged the war, with all the baleful consequences of death, destruction and division for Vietnamand America that this brought about"
110
How did the Draft exhibit signs of racism?
* Although in 1967 there was a smaller field of draft eligible black men–29 percent versus 63 percent of draft eligible white men–64 percent of black men were chosen to serve in the war through conscription, compared to only 31 percent of eligible white men.
111
How many draft-related offences occurred?
* Over 210,000 men were accused of draft-related offenses, 25,000 of whom were indicted
112
What was a rising issue in soldiers sent off to war?
* Of those soldiers who served during the war, there was increasing opposition to the conflict amongst GIs, which resulted in fragging and many other activities which hampered the US's ability to wage war effectively.
113
What did Michael Freidland contribute to the narrative?
* Michael Freidland is able to completely tell the story in his chapter entitled, "A Voice of Moderation: Clergy and the Anti-War Movement: 1966–1967". In basic summary, each specific clergy from each religion had their own view of the war and how they dealt with it, but as a whole, the clergy was completely against the war
114
How did American Asians respond to the war?
Unlike many Americans in the anti-war movement, they viewed the war “not just as imperialist but specifically as anti-Asian.” Groups like the Asian American Political Alliance (AAPA), the Bay Area Coalition Against the War (BAACAW), and the Asian Americans for Action made opposition to the war their main focus.
