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WSET Diploma D1 > Vinification > Flashcards

Vinification Flashcards

1
Q

What are the compounds that make up wine?

A

Water is about 85%

Alcohol

Glycerol

Acids - tartaric and malic, smaller amounts of lactic and acetic

Wine aromatics

Residual sugar

Phenolics

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2
Q

What compounds can add sweetness, or a sweet sensation, to a wine?

A

Residual sugar

Alcohol can contribute a sense of sweetness

Glycerol has a slightly sweet taste

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3
Q

What impact does alcohol have on the taste of wine?

A

Adds a sense of sweetness and bitterness.

Warms the mouth

Gives the wine body

May reduce the volatility of aromas

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4
Q

What is a typical wine pH?

A

3-4 (3 is 10 x more acidic that 4)

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5
Q

What is the typical unit of measure of acid in a wine and what range is normal?

A

Equivalent g/l of tartaric acid - normally 5.5 - 8.5 g/l

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6
Q

What acid is considered a fault in high concentration?

A

Acetic acid (vinegar)

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7
Q

Give 2 examples of grape derived aromatic compounds

A

Methoxypyrazines - grassy/green pepper in Sauvignon Blanc

Rotundone - pepper aroma in Shiraz/ Grüner Veltliner

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8
Q

What is 4MMP?

A

Aromatic compound released in fermentation that gives box tree aroma to Sauvignon Blanc

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9
Q

What are terpenes? Give examples

A

Aroma compounds formed from precursors during fermentation

From Muscat:
Linalool (floral)
Geraniol (rose like)

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10
Q

How are esters derived?

A

Esters are formed from acid and alcohol, during fermentation

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11
Q

What do esters contribute to a wine?

A

Fresh and fruity flavours in young wine - e.g. apple/ pineapple

e.g. isoamyl acetate gives aroma of bananas

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12
Q

What aroma compounds originate from fermentation?

A

Esters (fruity, sweet flavours)

Acetaldehydes (fino sherry)

Diacetyl (buttery aroma)

Sulphurous compounds (struck match to rotten eggs)

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13
Q

Give 2 examples of aroma compounds that are not grape or fermentation derived

A

Vanillin comes from oak

Eucalyptol can be absorbed into grape skins from nearby eucalyptus

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14
Q

Name a model for categorizing wine aromas, and the key categories that make it up

A

Vicente Ferreira’s model for wine aromas

  • compounds common to all wine
  • impact aromas
  • contributory aromas
  • nonvolatile wine matrix
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15
Q

What range of residual sugar might you fine in different wines?

A

‘Brut nature’ sparkling - 0-1g/l

Dry wine: 2-3g/l

Port: 35-120 g/l

Sweet wine: Sauternes 150 g/l

Sweet wine: Perdo Ximenez 400 g/l

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16
Q

What are the EU classifications of sweetness in still wine?

A

Dry/sec/trocken: up to 4 g/l, or up to 9g/l if acid is not more than 2 g/l less

Medium dry/ demi-sec/ halbtrocken: 4-12 g/l, or up to 18 g/l if acid is not more than 10 g/l less

Medium sweet/ ioelleux/ lieblich: 12-45 g/l

Sweet: 45 g/l or more

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17
Q

Give examples of phenolic compounds

A

Anthocyanins

Tannins

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18
Q

What are common practices for making organic wine?

A

Depends on the certifying body. e.g. EU allows SO2 to be added, US excludes it.

Use organic raw materials where possible. e.g. organic egg white for fining

Excludes certain practices, e.g. partial dealcoholisation of wine

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19
Q

What are the sources of wine aromatic compounds?

A
  • Aromas from grapes
  • Aromas created from grape precursors
  • Aromas created by fermentation
  • Aromas from other sources
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20
Q

What are common practices for biodynamic winemaking?

A

Always made from certified biodynamically grown grapes

Other requirements can vary by county, even when certified by Demeter International.
e.g. UK producers can use organic or commercial yeast types. US can only use commercial year on a case by case basis, if fermentation is stuck

Adding many products is not permitted. e.g. isinglass

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21
Q

What are common practices for natural winemaking?

A

There is no agreed definition of a natural wine

Typically refers to the fewest possible interventions. e.g. use ambient yeast, minimal SO2.

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22
Q

What 2 gases are fundamental to the majority of winemaking?

A

Oxygen

Sulphur dioxide

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23
Q

What impact does the presence of oxygen have on wine?

A

Oxygen typically breaks down many flavours that make fresh, fruity wines. e.g. thiols in Sauvignon Blanc

Oxidation typically creates nutty/ savoury flavours, e.g. acetaldehyde

White wines become darker and browner

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24
Q

What compounds may help protect against the presence of oxygen in still wine?

A

Phenolic compounds in red wine are anti-oxidative

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25
Q

How are oxygen levels limited in winemaking?

A

Avoid ullage in vessels; fill to the top and use tight seals

Use inert gases to flush out oxygen/air from equipment before it makes contact with wine

Add sulphur dioxide, which is anti-oxidative

Use impermeable containers: stainless steel and concrete over wood; screw cap over cork

Keep temperatures lower

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26
Q

When is oxygen required in winemaking?

A

At the start of fermentation, oxygen promotes healthy yeast growth

Early exposure may increase the stability of white wine to oxygen increasing ageing potential

In red wine oxygen is required for the reactions between anthocyanins and tannins that stabilise colour

Some oxygen exposure derived compounds may give desired characteristics: dried fruits, honey, caramel, coffee, leather, mushrooms

Some fortified wine requires oxygen: Oloroso, Madeira, Tawny port

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27
Q

How is oxygen exposure increased during winemaking?

A

Cap management techniques that spray/splash wine

Smaller wooden barrels

increase rackings/ lees stirring

Increase ullage

pump oxygen through (micro-oxygenation

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28
Q

What properties does sulphur dioxide have in winemaking?

A

Anti-oxidant (indirect)

Anti-microbial

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29
Q

What SO2 levels are permitted by the EU?

A

150 mg/l in red wine

200 mg/l in white wine

Over 10 mg/l requires a label that the wine contains sulphites

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30
Q

How can winemakers reduce SO2 requirements?

A

Good hygiene and grape sorting limit microbes

Limiting oxygen exposure during winemaking

Lower temperatures during winemaking

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31
Q

What states does SO2 exist in wine and how can these be influenced?

A

Bound SO2 has reacted with compounds in the wine and has limited benefits

Free SO2 is either inactive (most) or molecular (limited proportion).

Molecular SO2 is most beneficial.

Greater proportions exist at lower pH

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32
Q

How are grapes and must protected in harvest and transportation?

A

Pack in smaller crates to protect against crushing

Keep temperatures lower - harvest at night

Add SO2 (potassium metabisulfite)

Keep equipment clean/ sanitized

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33
Q

What processes may a grape be exposed to before fermentation?

A

Chilling

Sorting, or triage

Destemming

Crushing

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34
Q

How can grapes be sorted?

A

Remove unwanted grapes/bunches before harvest

Sort by hand - on a table, a conveyer belt, or a vibrating belt (also removed MOG)

Optical sorting

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35
Q

What are the implications of increasing sorting?

A

Increasing sorting, typically increases cost, and lowers yields as more grapes are removed. It may be required in poor years, if there are larger number of unripe or moldy grapes

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36
Q

Why are some grapes not de-stemmed?

A

It depends on the wine being made:

-Some red wine fermentations use whole bunches, which increase tannin levels from stems (stems need to be ripe)

  • carbonic maceration needs whole bunches
  • some white wines and sparkling wines require whole bunch pressing
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37
Q

Explain crushing vs. pressing

A

Crushing breaks the skin of grapes and releases juice to instigate fermentation. Care is taken to leave seeds whole. Can be carried out by feet.

Pressing is the separation of juice or wine from skin and seeds

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38
Q

What are the common types of press?

A

Pneumatic press uses and air sack in a tank to apply pressure to grapes. Investment is greater, but the pressure control is greater and inert gas flushing can be carried out.

Basket press (also vertical or Champagne press) is unsealed, possibly more gentle that a pneumatic press, but more labour intensive as they hold a smaller load

Horizontal screw press is similar to a basket press

Continuous presses, which are better suited to high volume, inexpensive wine

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39
Q

What is the name for solid remains left over pressing?

A

Pomace

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40
Q

What are the common adjustments made to must?

A

Enrichment (chaptalisation, concentration, RCGM addition)

Reducing alcohol (dilution)

Acidification (4 types of acid commonly added: Tartaric, malic, citric, lactic)

Deacidification (2 compounds commonly added: potassium carbonate, calcium carbonate)

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41
Q

What practices are covered by the term ‘enrichment’?

A

Chaptalisation - adding dry sugar

Concentration of sugar levels. e.g. reverse osmosis/ cryoextraction

Adding RCGM or other grape products

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42
Q

What level of chaptalization is allowed in the EU?

A

It depends on the area:

Cooler regions may add up to 3% (to a maximum of 11.5% in white and 12% in red)

Warmer regions may add up to 1.5%, and are limited to grape concentrate or RCGM

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43
Q

How is alcohol reduced prior to fermentation?

A

Typically dilution with water, although the practice is tightly controlled. Aromas and flavours are also diluted

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44
Q

How and when is acidification carried out?

A

Tartaric acid is usually added, although citric (not in the EU), malic and lactic acids can also be added

Acidification can happen at any point, although typically before fermentation

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45
Q

What level of de-/acidification is allowed in the EU?

A

It depends on the area:

In cooler climates, deacidification of up to -1 g/l is allowed

In warmer climates, acidification of up to 2.5 g/l is allowed

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46
Q

Why do winemakers acidify must/wine?

A

In warmer climates, malic acid levels may drop dramatically during ripening

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47
Q

How is deacidification carried out?

A

Calcium carbonate or potassium carbonate is added, which precipitates tartrates out of the must/wine

If deacidication is carried out prior to fermentation, the winemaker must bear in mind some further reduction in acid may take place due to MLF

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48
Q

What compounds are produced during fermentation?

A

Yeast primarily convert sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide, in the absence of oxygen

Other compounds include:
- small amounts of volatile acid
- small amounts of SO2
- aromatics from aroma precursors (e.g. thiols like 4MMP)
- aromatics from yeast (e.g. esters that give fruity flavours)

Glycerol

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49
Q

What species of yeast are used by wine makers?

A

Saccharomyces cerevisiae is the most common due to its resistance to SO2 and alcohol levels

Saccharomyces bayanus is used for higher alcohol content, or re-fermenting sparkling wine

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50
Q

What yeast sources are there?

A

Ambient yeast - mixed yeast varieties that live on grapes and in the winery, although S. cerevisiae is dominant over 5% alcohol

Cultured yeast from a laboratory can be selected for different characteristics. e.g. enhancing aromatics, or retained fruit

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51
Q

List the advantages and disadvantages of ambient yeast for fermentation

A

Advantages:
- increased complexity of aroma compounds
- free
- unique varieties may lead to unique expressions of terroir
- marketing tool

Disadvantages:
- risk of spoilage yeasts (brettanomyces) and bacteria
- fermentation may take longer or get stuck
- variable product

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52
Q

List the advantages and disadvantages of cultured yeast for fermentation

A

Advantages:
- reliable, fast fermentation
- less danger of spoilage
- consistent product
- choice of strains to impact flavour

Disadvantages:
- cost
- potential similarity of flavours across the industry

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53
Q

What are typical fermentation temperature ranges for different wine styles?

A

Cool: 54-61°F (12–16°C) for fresher fruitier white and rosé

Mid-range: 63-77°F (17–25°C) for easy drinking red, or barrel fermented white

Warm: 79-90°F (26–32°C) for powerful reds to maximize color and tannin extraction

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54
Q

How is temperature controlled during fermentation?

A

Coolant jackets in stainless steel vats

Move ferments into warmer/cooler cellars

Pumping over (délestage) reduces heat

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55
Q

What are different fermentation vessels normally made from and what characters do they bring?

A

Stainless steel - neutral, good temperature control, good for mechanization

Concrete - efficient temperature control. Can be cheap, or expensive. Lined with resin

Wood - need good hygiene. Retains heat. May oxygenate more. Less common for reds due to poor cap management

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56
Q

What is MLF and how does it arise?

A

Malolactic Fermentation, or conversion, is from lactic acid bacteria converting malic acid to lactic acid

Needs a temperature >59°F (15°C), a low pH and low-moderate SO2

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57
Q

Which wines typically go through MLF?

A

All red wine, in combination with normal fermentation, because of the higher temperatures of fermentation

Acidic white wines in non-aromatic grape varieties, e.g. Chardonnay

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58
Q

What characteristics does MLF bring to a wine?

A

Reduction in acidity

Some red colour loss

Greater microbial stability

Potential reduction of fruit character and addition of buttery flavour

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59
Q

What techniques can reduce alcohol post-fermentation?

A

Reverse osmosis to remove a mixture of water and alcohol - distillation can remove alcohol from this mix before adding it back

Equipment called a spinning cone

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60
Q

How can colour be adjusted?

A

Fining may reduce unwanted colour

Some colours may be added, e.g. grape derived MegaPurple

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61
Q

What are the main choices when storing wine before bottling?

A

Fruity, fresh wines that have limited oxygen exposure are likely to be held in stainless steel and bottled quickly after fermentation

Wine may be matured in bulk in large inert vessels, or barrels that allow slow oxygen exchange

Barrels may be old or new wood

Wine may be help on its lees, and stirred or left.

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62
Q

How does the role of oxygen impact the maturation of white wine differently to red wine?

A

Red wine has anti-oxidative properties from phenolic compounds. Therefore it can typically withstand a longer maturation of 12-24 months, compared with 6-12 for whites

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63
Q

How does the size of a barrel impact maturation?

A

Water and alcohol impregnate the wood and slowly diffuse out of the barrel sides, to be replaced by ullage. The ullage increases oxidation.

As smaller barrels have a larger surface area to volume ratio, this process is faster compared with larger barrels

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64
Q

What is micro-oxygenation and what are its benefits/risks?

A

Micro-oxygenation is bubbling oxygen through wine, measured in mg/l per month

It is much more precise than barrel ageing, and saves money over making barrels.

It is an unproven technique however which has risk as longer term outcomes are unknown, and may provide a great chance of spoilage.

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65
Q

Why is wine matured in cellars?

A

Cellars are cool, which slows down the effect of oxygenation, and prevents some undesirable reactions that can happen at warmer temperatures.

It also reduces evaporation loss

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66
Q

How does an oak barrel’s impact on wine change over time?

A

Oak has extractable compounds, mainly tannins and aroma compounds.

The levels of these in oak typically halve in year 1, and by year 4 will not contribute noticeably.

Permeability to oxygen and evaporation remain unchanged over time.

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67
Q

What are common barrel sizes for maturation?

A

Barriques 225L

Foudres - large vessel +2,000L

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68
Q

What types of oak are there and what are their key characteristics for wine maturation?

A

French - higher in tannin (tighter grain, impart less flavor)

American - high in lactone (coconut) (wider grain, impart more flavor)

Hungarian - tight grain, slow release of compounds

Russian

Slavonian

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69
Q

How does oak type impact cost?

A

Manufacturing American barrels is about half the cost of European as wood can be sawn, not split.

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70
Q

What are the key processes in making a new barrel?

A

Season the wood for 2-3 years

Saw/split into staves.

Heat to bend (toasting)

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71
Q

What alternatives are there to barrel ageing to achieve oak aromas?

A

Adding oak chips or staves in a stainless steel or concrete vessel

72
Q

What forms lees?

A

Dead/dying autolyzed yeast

Bacteria

Grape fragments

Precipitated tannins

73
Q

What is different types of lees settle over time?

A

Gross lees settles in the first 24 hours after fermentation.

Fine lees is everything after that.

74
Q

What impact does lees have on wine?

A

Autolyzed yeast release compounds that:

  • contribute flavor
  • bind with phenolic compounds to reduce color and soften tannins, or astringency of wood compounds
  • stabilize the wine against haze causing proteins
  • protect from oxygen
  • produce sulfur compounds (potentially good in low quantity and bad in high)
75
Q

Describe racking

A

Racking is the transfer of wine between vessels to remove sediment.

It can be oxidative, unless inert gas flushing is used.

It can be carried out multiple times, depending on the desired oxygen exposure and lees exposure

76
Q

List potential blending options

A
  • grape variety
  • different locations
  • different growers
  • different vintages
  • different treatment in the winery (free juice vs press; concrete vs wood; etc)
  • just different taste
77
Q

How can laws impact blending?

A

PDO wines have to be made 100% of grapes from the designate area.

Some regions must be 100% specific varieties, e.g. Sangiovese in Brunello di Montalcino

78
Q

Why is wine blended?

A

Balance characteristics

Achieve consistency

Achieving a desired style

Enhance complexity/depth

Minimise faults

Reach viable volumes

Balance cost - e.g. Semillon is cheaper than Chardonnay

79
Q

Why might blending be avoided?

A

‘Single vineyard’ might be good for marketing

May dilute distinct characteristics or aromas

80
Q

What steps are involved in finishing a wine ahead of packaging?

A

All optional/ as required

4 mos - 8 weeks ahead: Assemble final blend. Full chemical analysis - alcohol, residual sugar, free SO2 etc.

8 weeks: Final adjustments: alcohol, acidity, tannins if desired

6 weeks: Protein stability trial and if necessary fine with bentonite

4-6 weeks: Test for tartrate stability and treat if needed

4 weeks: Check protein stability and tartrate stability again, treat as needed

1-2 weeks: Add sweetening agents, e.g. grape concentrate (if using)

48-72 hours: test filterability of wine

24 hours: Adjust free SO2

Bottling day: Adjust dissolved oxygen and CO2

During bottling: Check dissolved oxygen (to ensure no pickup) and SO2 levels regularly and keep samples of bottled wine for quality assurance purposes

81
Q

What techniques clarify wine?

A

Sedimentation

Centrifugation

Fining

Filtration

82
Q

How is sedimentation carried out?

A

Leave the wine to settle (gravity forces solids to bottom of tank) and rack off.

It is a slow process suitable for premium/ super premium wines

83
Q

How is centrifugation carried out?

A

Spin the wine at high speed in a centrifuge. The capital investment is high, so it is normally used in high-volume wineries

84
Q

What types of fining agent are there?

A

Ones that remove:

  • unstable protein: e.g. Bentonite
  • phenolics with undesirable colour/bitterness: e.g.: egg albumin; gelatine, casein; isinglass; vegetable protein; PVPP
  • colour and off-odours: charcoal
85
Q

How is fining carried out?

A

Small sample testing helps determine the desired quantity of fining agent.

Agents have the opposite charge to the colloid, bind to it, and form a larger particle that settles faster.

86
Q

List fining agents that remove phenolics, the agent properties and typical target wines

A

Egg albumin: removes harsh tannins. It is an allergen

Gelatin: protein collagen from pork removes bitterness in red wine and browning in white wine

Casein: milk protein that removes browning from white wine

Isinglass: protein collagen from fish bladders that clarifies white wines

Vegetable proteins: suitable for vegan friendly wine

PVPP (Polyvinylpolypyrrolidon): insoluble plastic powder removes browning and astringency from oxidised white wine

87
Q

What are the main types of filtration?

A

Depth filtration:

  • diatomaceous earth (pure silica)
  • sheet filter (plate and frame, or pad filter)

Surface filtration

  • membrane filter (normally very fine, sterile filtering, that requires pre-filter so that membranes are not blocked)
  • cross-flow filter (very fine, and high volume, but expensive capital investment)
88
Q

What different types of compound stability does winemaking normally refer to?

A

Protein stability - fining with bentonite is key

Tartrate stability

Microbial stability - sterile filtering is most common

89
Q

What are a winemaker’s options to increase tartrate stability?

A

Cold stabilization: hold wine at 25°F (-4°C) for 8 days before filtering

Contact process: add potassium bitartrate, cool to 32°F (0°C) for 1-2 hours and filter

Electrodialysis: charged membrane removes certain ions. High investment, but low running costs as no chilling is required

Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC): extracted from wood, used in white/rosé wine. Much cheaper than chilling

Metatartartic acid: Used in red wine in place of CMC, but time limited

90
Q

What are target SO2 levels?

A

Molecular SO2 changes with pH so there is a range: at a lower pH less SO2 is needed

  • white wine: 25–45 mg/l (lower than for - red wines due to lower pH)
  • red wine: 30–55 mg/l
  • sweet wine: 30–60 mg/l
91
Q

How can dissolved oxygen levels be reduced?

A

Sparging with inert gas

92
Q

List common types of wine faults

A

Cloudiness

Tartrate formation

Re-fermentation

Cork taint

Oxidation

Volatile acidity

Reduction

Light strike

Brettanomyces

93
Q

How is cork taint identified?

A

Wet cardboard/ wet leaves smell

94
Q

What identifies oxidation as a fault in wine?

A

Prematurely brown in colour, loss of primary fruit and vinegary smell

95
Q

What causes excessive volatile acidity and how is it identified?

A

Acetic acid bacteria may arise if levels of SO2 are too low. These bacteria produce acetone/vinegar smell

96
Q

What causes reduction and at what stages in winemaking does it typically occur?

A

Reductive compounds are formed either under yeast stress in fermentation (normally low nitrogen), or exhaustion of oxygen in closed vessels in lees ageing.

97
Q

How can reduction be avoided?

A

Ensure yeast has sufficient nutrients and oxygen

Lower SO2 levels (especially with impermeable closures)

98
Q

What is light strike and how is it avoided?

A

Predominantly UV light causes the production of volatile Sulphur compounds.

It can be avoided by using dark glass, and storing wine out of daylight and fluorescent displays.

99
Q

What is ‘brett’?

A

Brettanomyces is a yeast that creates animal or farmyard smells

It is considered a fault in high quantity. In low quantity it may add complexity to a wine.

100
Q

How is ‘brett’ avoided?

A

The cells can survive in wood in old and new barrels

It can hopefully be avoided through:

  • excellent hygiene
  • maintain SO2
  • keep pH low
  • keep fermentation and MLF as close together as possible so that SO2 can be added as soon as possible
101
Q

Once packaged, what sources of oxygen can impact a wine?

A

Dissolved oxygen

Headspace

Contained in the cork/closure

Oxygen transmitted through the cork

102
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of packaging in glass?

A

Advantages:
- inert
- easy to sterilise
- inexpensive
- recyclable
- impermeable

Disadvantages:
- high carbon footprint (manufacture and weight to transport)
- fragile
- rigid (headspace)
- risk of light strike

103
Q

What are the most common alternatives to glass packaging?

A

Plastic - cheap, light, but not suitable for long term

Bag-in-box/ pouch - easy storage, lightweight, no headspace, but not suitable for long term

Brick/Tetra Pak - easy storage, light - costly equipment to set up

Can - light weight, robust, impermeable, needs to be lined with plastic

104
Q

What are the most common closures for glass bottles?

A

Natural cork

Technical cork

Synthetic cork

Screwcap

Glass stopper (Vinolok)

105
Q

What are the risks and benefits of using natural cork?

A

Renewable

Good oxygen barrier

Universally liked by consumers

Can taint through TCA production unless rigorous quality controlled (e.g. gas chromatography) or steam cleaned

106
Q

What compound is associated with cork taint?

A

TCA: 2,4,6-trichloroanisole

107
Q

What is a technical cork?

A

Agglomerated cork granules, held together with glue.

Normally short term use only. Different oxygen ingress rates can be selected for longer ageing.

108
Q

What are the advantages / disadvantages of screwcaps?

A

Very tight closure

Easy to open

No taint risk

Wide degrees of acceptance

May require lower SO2 to avoid reduction

109
Q

What are considered ideal storage conditions for maturing packaged wine?

A

Undisturbed

Cool, dark place

Constant temperature, ideally around 10–15°C

Constant humidity, stored on side if cork

110
Q

What three categories do hygiene procedures fall into?

A

Cleaning - surface dirt

Sanitation - removing organisms to very low levels with detergent/ steam/ etc

Sterilization

111
Q

What is HACCP?

A

Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points (HACCP) is an approach to documenting and managing all hazards that could impact the wine, e.g. glass fragments in a bottle.

It requires investment of time and cost.

112
Q

What is an ISO certification?

A

International Organization for Standardization (ISO) can audit and certify that quality standards are being met (ISO 9000 and 9001).

It is carried out for a fee and may be required by large retailers to be a supplier.

113
Q

How and why is a wine made traceable?

A

Lot numbers are given to wine (EU requirement), which the winemaker can use to trace back and confirm the ingredients and processes used to manufacture the individual lot.

114
Q

When and why was the switch made from shipping barrels to bottles in Bordeaux?

A

In the 1920s, shipping bottles reduced the possibility of blending or adulteration of the finished wine.

115
Q

When, why and how is wine shipped in bulk over bottle?

A

30% to 40% of wine is shipped in bulk, typically lower value, high volume wine.

Shipping costs are substantially reduced as large polyethylene bags can be used in a shipping container, instead of hundreds of glass bottles.

High quality bottling plants can bottle the wine near to the final market.

116
Q

What are the benefits / limitations to shipping wine in bulk containers?

A

Lower costs and carbon footprint

Great temperature stability

Tighter quality control on filling/emptying, and potential further adjustment

Potentially extend shelf life

Only viable for larger producers (min 3 containers per year)

117
Q

How does machine harvesting compare with hand harvesting, in the process of must production for white wine?

A

Machines harvest berries only, whereas hand harvesting takes whole bunches.

Therefore hand harvesting must decide whether to de-stem before crushing and/or pressing

118
Q

What are the key decisions to be made in white wine production?

A
  • Harvest method
  • Sorting level
  • De-stem (hand harvest only)
  • Crush method/extent
  • skin contact time
  • press method/ pressure
  • hyperoxidation
  • must adjustments
  • clarification level/method
  • fermentation
  • post-fermentation adjustments
  • MLF
119
Q

What white varieties are most likely to have skin contact?

A

Aromatic varieties: Reisling, Gewurtztraminer, Viognier, etc

120
Q

What impact does skin contact have on white wine?

A

Potential enhancement of aroma and flavor compounds

Can lead to bitter/ coarse wine if overdone

121
Q

How long are white grapes left with skin contact? Anything else specific about the process?

A

Skin contact is typically 1-24 hours

Juice is typically chilled to below 59°F (15°C)

122
Q

What is orange wine and how is it made?

A

Orange wine is made from white grapes and normally fermented on skins, resulting in a larger component of oxidized compounds from the skins.

Orange wines are usually dry, tannic, with tertiary flavors such as nuts and dried fruit.

123
Q

What winemaking options are available for white grapes up to and including pressing?

A

Hand picked grapes can be destemmed and/ or crushed before pressing.

Whole bunch pressing can be used for premium wines

Inert gases can limit oxygen exposure during these phases

Free run juice is from crushed grapes, or an initial pressing.

More pressure will result in press juice with increased solids, tannin and color.

124
Q

What is hyperoxidation and when is it used?

A

Hyperoxidation is deliberately exposing must to large quantities of oxygen before fermentation.

It is used to produce a wine that is potentially more stable, and removes some bitter compounds.

It can destroy some aroma compounds and so is better with neutral grape varieties, e.g. Chardonnay

125
Q

Why and how is white grape must clarified?

A

Clarification of must is optional prior to fermentation. It reduces the risk of spoilage from solids and their reactions

Overall the range of aromas may be reduced by clarification. However it thought to obtain better fruity aromas

It is usually carried out by one of:

  • 12-24 hours of sedimentation
  • flotation of solid matter from bubbling inert gas through must, with a fining agent, to skim off
  • centrifuge
  • pectolytic enzymes
126
Q

When is white wine fermented in oak?

A

Small oak barrels are typically used for premium/ super-premium, non-aromatic grapes, particularly Chardonnay

127
Q

What temperatures are used for white wine fermentation?

A

54-61°F (12–16°C) for fresh fruity wine.

This many be increased to 63-77°F (17–25°C) for more savory flavors

128
Q

What white wines are matured in wood?

A

Neutral, non-aromatic varieties may be matured in wood, particularly premium/ super-premium wines

129
Q

What winemaking processes or decision points are there when maturing and finishing white wine for sale?

A
  • blending
  • use of oak
  • lees ageing
  • further blending
  • stabilization
  • clarification
  • packaging
130
Q

What is the potential impact of lees ageing on white wine?

A
  • increased body/depth
  • soften mouthfeel
  • stabilize
  • protect from oxygen
  • introduce some reductive sulphur compounds
131
Q

What is the French word for lees stirring?

A

Bâtonnage

132
Q

Explain the process of lees stirring

A

Lees stirring is optional.

Traditionally a bung is removed and lees are stirred by hand with a rod. This increases oxygen exposure and reduces the chance of reductive compounds.

Lees can be stirred without removing the bung (e.g. rotate barrel).

133
Q

What methods are there for concentrating grape must to produce wine with residual sugar?

A
  • drying grapes on the vine
  • drying grapes off the vine

-noble rot

  • freezing grapes on the vine
134
Q

How are grapes dried on the vine? Give examples

A

Stage 4 of ripening (extra-ripening) results in water loss by transpiration. This results in extra-ripe flavours.

Long dry summers are required to avoid grey rot.

e.g. Pinot Gris may develop tropical fruit and dried stone fruit flavours.

The stem may be broken to increase water loss. This is used in Jurançon in south west France.

135
Q

How are wines made from grapes dried on the vine labelled?

A

Late harvest

Vendanges Tardives from Alsace

Spätlese from Germany or Austria.

136
Q

How are grapes dried off the vine?

A

Grapes can be dried over days, up to months.

Warm counties may lay grapes out in the sun - southern Italy or Spain

They can also be dried in temperature and humidity controlled room.

Recioto di Valpolicella and Vin Santo in Italy are both examples of wine made this way

137
Q

How are grapes concentrated through noble rot?

A

Botrytis cinerea (grey rot). This must develop in a ripe grape, with damp mornings and dry/sunny afternoons.

The fungus leaves small holes in the skin that water evaporates through.

138
Q

What types of wine are made from noble rot?

A

Sauternes

Beerenauslese

Trockenbeerenauslese

Tokaji

139
Q

What is the impact of noble rot on sweet wine making?

A

As the rot is rarely uniform, several hand pickings are usually required.

Ideal weather conditions are unreliable and so the same vineyard may not produce botrytis every year

High doses of SO2 are required to minimise the impact of the fungal enzyme laccase. Chilling and flushing with inert gases also help limit oxidation

Thick must is harder to press, clarify and ferment

140
Q

How is ice wine produced?

A

Healthy grapes are left on the vine until frozen in winter and harvested whilst frozen (-8°C in Canada)

Pressing frozen grapes leaves ice crystals behind and the juice is more concentrated

Grapes will often go through several freeze/thaw cycles before harvest

Stainless steel is often used to retain aromas and flavours

Oak maturation is sometimes used

141
Q

What are the protected terms for ice wine?

A

Eiswein in Germany and Austria

Icewine in Canada

142
Q

What attributes are required for ice wine varietals? Give examples

A

Grapes need to be hardy and thick skinned. Riesling and Vidal are common

143
Q

What alternatives are there to traditional ice wine making?

A

Cryoextraction can replicate the effect of grapes freezing on the vine and is much cheaper, with lower risk of crop damage

144
Q

How is sweet wine made by stopping fermentation early? give an example

A

Stopping fermentation early is more common with off-dry to medium sweet wines

The most common methods are chilling to 50°F (10°C), or a high dose of SO2. The wine is then racked and filtered

Used for inexpensive/ mid-priced wine. e.g. Moscato d’Asti

Fortified wine may use alcohol spirit to stop fermentation

145
Q

How is sweet wine made by blending?

A

Blending in a sweetening component to dry wine reduces susceptibility to spoilage

There is a high degree of control

Suitable for inexpensive wines

RCGM or unfermented grape juice are most commonly added

146
Q

What compounds are sought in red wine over white, and what methods are used to obtain them over white winemaking?

A

Anthocyanins, tannins and skin aroma compounds

These are extracted through:
- higher temperatures
- longer time on skins
- cap management
- matching extraction to the appropriate time (anthocyanins pre-fermentation, tannins during/after)

147
Q

What promotes colour stability?

A

Anthocyanins are the source of colour in young red wine.

These are more stable when bonded to tannins, normally through oxygenation

148
Q

At what points in red wine production can rosé be produced?

A

Key is to press before fermentation, as lots of colour comes out during fermentation

Two choices:

  • Press after sorting
  • Press after pre-fermentation maceration
149
Q

What options exist in red wine making processes, that are rarely or never used in white wine?

A

Fermentation on skins

Mixing whole berries, or bunches, with crushed fruit for fermentation

Carbonic maceration

Semi carbonic maceration

Cap management

150
Q

What maceration options are there in red winemaking and how do they differ?

A

Maceration before fermentation to extract colour and flavour without tannin:
- cold soaking
- using heat

Maceration during fermentation also extracts tannins

151
Q

Name and explain options and methods for maceration before fermentation

A

Cold soaking: juice and skins are held at 4°C - 10°C for 3-7 days. May use cap management during this. Used with Pinot Noir maximise low levels of anthocyanins

Thermovinification: heating to around 50°C - 60°C for minutes to hours

Flash détente: destemmed and heated to 85°C and 90°C for a few minutes, under vacuum.

152
Q

What is the impact of pressing red wine before fermentation?

A

The wine is typically inexpensive, low tannin, fruity style. It may have colour instability and should be drunk young

153
Q

What options reduce the impact of grey rot (botrytis) on still red wine?

A

Pre-fermentation maceration with heat can denature oxidative enzymes (laccase) in the fungus

154
Q

What causes a cap and how is it managed?

A

Carbon dioxide bubbles cause the skins to float, forming a layer separated from the rest of the fermentation. To maximise colour extraction, these can be circulated back into the wine by:

Punching down

Pumping over

Rack and return

Ganimede tanks

Rotary fermenters

155
Q

How is punching down carried out?

A

A hand or mechanical plunger submerges the cap. This requires a small, open top vessel

156
Q

What is the French term for punching down?

A

Pigeage

157
Q

How is pumping over carried out?

A

About 1/3 to 1/2 of the liquid in a fermentation vessel is pumped and sprayed over the top of the cap.

In an open tank this increases oxygen levels and reduces the risk of reductive flavours

158
Q

What is the French term for pumping over?

A

Remontage

159
Q

How is rack and return carried out?

A

The liquid from the fermentation vessel is pumped into an empty vessel.

This is then pumped back over the cap.

It is a highly effective extractive technique, so used only 1-3 times during fermentation

160
Q

What is the French term for rack and return?

A

Delestage

161
Q

How does a Ganimede tank work?

A

Ganimede tanks bubble up CO2 (or oxygen/air) through the wine. The cap bursts when the pressure is high enough

This is highly effective and less labour intensive than rack and return, although specialized tanks are required

162
Q

How do rotary fermenters function?

A

The closed, horizontal stainless steel tanks rotate and internal blades break up the cap

These are very effective, but imprecise, so used for larger volume mid-range reds

163
Q

What is co-fermentation?

A

Co-fermentation is the process of fermenting different grape varieties together.

Most frequently up to 5% white grapes in a red wine fermentation. e.g. Syrah/Viognier in Côte-Rôtie (theory = allows more aromatic quality and helps with color extraction etc.)

164
Q

What viniculture considerations are there for whole bunch fermentation?

A

Grapes need to be hand harvested

Stems must be ripe

165
Q

What options are there for whole bunch fermentation and how do they differ?

A

Carbonic maceration blankets whole bunches with added CO2. Grapes are pressed when alcohol reaches 2% (sealed tank)

Semi-carbonic maceration - CO2 is generated by ambient yeast from crushed grapes at the bottom of the vessel. This can be continued to develop to full fermentation

Whole berries with crushed fruit - being submerged limits oxygen, and these undergo intracellular fermentation and are integrated and crushed during cap management

166
Q

What chemical changes occur to grapes during whole bunch fermentation?

A

What chemical changes occur to grapes during whole bunch fermentation?

167
Q

What temperature range may be used for red wine fermentation?

A

20°C for fruity, low tannin

30°C for concentration and tannin for ageing

168
Q

What vessels are used for red wine fermentation?

A

Open top would be needed for punching down, but closed top can be used

Where oak is used, it is normally large vats, but it is an option to ferment in barriques, with a small opening. This is labour intensive and used for premium/ super-premium wines only

169
Q

What are the consideration for post-fermentation maceration?

A

Post-fermentation maceration may be from a few days to a few weeks. This is thought to extract more tannins and also encourage polymerisation, increasing ageing potential.

Because of the ageing requirement, and tank space, it is used in premium/ super-premium wines

170
Q

What are the options when pressing red wine?

A

Pressing may be carried out:
- before the end of fermentation, with a view to finish fermenting in barrel
- at the end of fermentation, or
- after post-fermentation maceration

Wines that undergo carbonic maceration may be pressed as soon as alcohol reaches 2%, to retain low tannin.

171
Q

What are the main options with MLF in red winemaking?

A

Malolactic fermentation can be encouraged:
- during fermentation
- after fermentation in tank
- after fermentation in barrel

172
Q

What winemaking processes or decisions can be made when maturing and finishing red wine for sale?

A
  • blending
  • use of oak
  • lees ageing
  • further blending
  • stabilization
  • clarification
  • packaging
173
Q

What lees ageing can be used in red wine production?

A

Lees ageing is not common in red wine production as it reduces colour intensity

Where it is used, it is normally fine lees, with no stirring.

174
Q

What are the three main methods of making rosé wine?

A

“Direct pressing” before maceration. The higher the pressure, the greater the level of anthocyanins/ tannins extracted from skin

“Short maceration”, which allows for greater extraction of skin compounds.

Sometimes short maceration rosé is from the by-product of must concentration.

“Blending” mixes fermented red and white wines. This method is not allowed in most EU geographical indicators (except Champagne)

175
Q

What styles of rosé are produced by different techniques?

A

Light coloured rosés are produced by direct pressing as maceration is minimal. Also called ‘vin gris’ wine. e.g. Provence wine

Typically deeper in colour wines are produced by short maceration. e.g. Spanish rosé and Tavel.

Blending can produce a wide range of styles

176
Q

What viticulture considerations are there for grapes used in rosé?

A

Higher quality rosé is typically made in cool to moderate sites/ climates. Yields can be higher than reds, to produce grapes with less concentration and more acid

Harvest is normally earlier than for red wine making, although care must be taken with unripe stems

177
Q

What winemaking decisions are usually made for rosé?

A

Rosé is normally fermented at low temperatures 54-61°F (12°C-16°C) to retain aroma compounds

Oak use is light, and the wine needs sufficient fruit concentration not to be overpowered

Cultured yeast is normally used that promotes fruit flavours

MLF is normally avoided

WSET Diploma D1 (2 decks)

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