Viticulture Flashcards
(269 cards)
1
Q
When was vitis vinifera domesticated? Where? What was it called?
A
-7,000 years ago from wild grapevines
-land b/w Black, Caspian and Med Sea
-Vitis sylvestris
2
Q
Where is vitis sylvestris native to?
A
Europe and Western Asia
3
Q
What type of plant is grapevine?
A
Lianas, don’t produce extensive wooden support systems
-phototrophs or sunseekers
4
Q
What is the scion of a grapevine?
A
The above ground portion of the grape vine. Joined to the rootstock at the graft union.
5
Q
What is a cane?
A
Shoots grown in the previous growing season that have lignified or turned brown.
-1-4 feet long after pruning
6
Q
What is a spur?
A
Canes that have been trimmed to a length of several inches
7
Q
What is a cordon?
A
-Horizontal extensions of the trunk
-have a number of spur positions located along them
8
Q
What is a node? Internode?
A
-Nodes resemble a knuckle and located every few inches on the shoot.
-Internodes are the space in b/w each node
9
Q
What is the canopy?
A
All of the vegetative green growth that develops during the growing season.
10
Q
What are the two types of buds located at each node b/w the leaf and the stem?
A
Lateral buds
Dormant buds
11
Q
What is a lateral bud?
A
-develop into shoots called laterals
-side shoots that branch off of the main fruiting shoots
-typically non-fruiting but may produce clusters known as second crop
12
Q
What is a dormant bud?
A
-also called latent bud
-spend the year maturing
-develop into shoots in future years
-ones that formed the year before on canes and spurs from one-year old wood are the most fruitful
13
Q
What is a sucker?
A
Unwanted shoots that developed from dormant buds on older wood
-don’t produce fruit and removed
14
Q
What is a petiole?
A
the stems of the leaves that connect the leaf and shoot
15
Q
How many clusters do shoots contain?
A
Between 1-3
16
Q
What is the fruit zone?
A
The area of the vine where the fruit is growing
17
Q
What is an inflorescence?
A
-Flower clusters that resemble immature grape clusters
-Found on each fruitful shoot
-initiated w/in bud during previous growing season
-number of clusters determined at that time
18
Q
When are flower clusters transformed into grape clusters?
A
At fruit set
19
Q
What is the Rachis?
A
The stem of the grape cluster.
20
Q
What is the bloom?
A
The thick waxy coating on the berries that protects it from disease, dehydeation and collects yeast and other microbes useful during fermentation.
21
Q
How many seeds within each berry?
A
Two to three
22
Q
What is ampelography?
A
The science of identifying grape varieties based on morphology.
23
Q
What is photosynthesis?
A
When plants create sugar from carbon dioxide and light.
-Takes place primarily in the leaves but can occur in the green plant tissue.
24
Q
What is respiration?
A
Converts sugar into usable energy called adenosine triphosphate or ATP.
-requires oxygen
-releases CO2
-required for vine growth
25
What is a stomate?
Microscopic pores in the leaves
-CO2 is taken in through stomates
-when open, water vapor is released from the plant into the atmosphere
-during stress, stomates close, halting photosynthesis
26
What is pruning weight?
-weight of the material that is removed from the vine at pruning
27
What is the Ravaz index?
-the ratio of fruit weight to pruning weight
28
What is the length of internodes and shoots for a balanced vine?
-3-4 inch internodes
-roughly four shoots
29
What family does vitis vinifera belong to?
Vitaceae
30
The most cultivated grape species belong to the genus _______.
Vitis
31
Name another genus of grape species.
Muscadinia
32
What is a species of muscadinia?
Rotundifolia
33
What are other species of Vitis other than vinifera?
-Berlandieri
-Riparia
-Rupestris
-Labrusca
-Amurensis
-Aestivalis
34
AXRI is a hybrid of which two Vitis species?
Rupestris and vinifera
35
Concord is a hybrid of which two Vitis species?
Vinifera and Labrusca
36
What is a grape crossing?
The offspring of 2 varieties belonging to the same species
-i.e. Chardonnay, Riesling, Merlot
37
What is a hybrid?
The product of interspecies breeding
-i.e rootstocks, niche grape varieties like Chambourcin and Vidal blanc
38
Alicante Bouschet is a crossing of what?
Petit Bouschet and Grenache
39
Müller-Thurgau is a crossing of what?
Riesling and Madeleine Royale
40
Pinotage is a crossing of what?
Pinot Noir x Cinsault
41
What is an example of proles pontica, what are some characteristics and where is it native to?
Zinfandel, Furmint, Vermentino
-more jagged leaf blades, white hair on the underside of the leaves, mid-sized clusters and small to med round berries
-Aegean and Black Seas
42
What is an example of proles occidentalis, what are some characteristics and where is it native to?
includes most int'l grape varieties like CS, Chard, PN, Riesling
-convex leaves, small compact bunches, small round berries
-native to Western Europe
43
What is an example of proles orientalis, what are some characteristics and where is it native to?
Muscat, Cinsault and most table grapes
-large leaves, bunches and berries with oval shape
-Middle East, Iran. Afghanistan
44
What is a monoterpene?
Compounds responsible for the flavors of rose, lychee and orange blossom.
45
What is a clone?
Variants within a grape variety that differ slightly in terms of morphology or behavoir
-can affect a single bud, leaf or flower
46
Where is the gingin clone of chardonnay popular?
Western Australia
47
Gewürztraminer is a mutation of what?
Savagnin Blanc
48
Name two German hybrid grape varieties used for disease resistance and cold tolerance.
Rondo
Regent
49
Name 3 species of rooststocks that are frequently encountered.
-Vitis riparia
-Vitis rupestris
-Vitis berlandieri
50
Where will you find Vitis riparia rootstock? Characteristics? Example of one?
-riparian areas (alongside rivers)
-eastern and central north america
-shallow fibrous roots, not drought tolerant
-low vigor, early ripening scion
-Riparia Gloire
51
Where will you find Vitis rupestris rootstock? Characteristics? Example of one?
-thrives in rocky creek beds and nutrient-poor areas
-native to the American South
-grows extensive roots, drought tolerant in deep soils
-vigorous, induces large canopies
-somewhat tolerant to nematodes and viruses
-St. George
52
Where will you find Vitis berlandieri rootstock? Characteristics? Example of one?
-native to deep limestone soils in Texas
-good choice for alkaline soils
-deep roots, drought tolerance
-induces later ripening
-variable phylloxera resistance
-won't root from dormant cuttings so must be bred with another vine in order to be commercially viable
53
How is climate defined?
-the long-term average of weather over time
-refers to the patterns and overall amount of heat, sunlight, precipitation, and wind that characterize a region.
53
How do you define a mediterranean and maritime climate?
moderate, with a small range between summer and winter temperatures
54
How do you define a continental climate?
-more dramatic temperature swing throughout the year and experience the classic four seasons
55
When do you see rain in Mediterranean climates?
wet winters but receive little rain during the growing season
56
When do you see rain in maritime and continental climates?
receive rain year-round
57
What is the Köppen-Geiger?
climate classifications divide regions into five main groups:
-tropical, dry, temperate, continental, and polar
-then further into subgroups based on temperature and precipitation patterns.
58
What are four key properties integral to the survival of a vine?
heat, light, water, nutrients
59
What is the range of temperature in which vines grow?
50-95 degrees Farenheit
60
What are Two important concepts related to heat accumulation?
-continentality (difference b/w summer and winter temps)
-diurnal shift
61
How many leaves are required to ripen a cluster?
12-16
62
What does light do for the development in the grapevine?
stimulates the production of phenolic compounds, like anthocyanin and tannin, as well as TDN (the petrol flavor observed in aged riesling), encourages the breakdown of pyrazine
63
What is 1,1,6,-trimethyl-1,2-dihydronapthalene?
TDN
64
What is the min amount of sunshine hours vitis vinifera require to ripen fruit?
1,250
-higher latitude has longer days and receive more
-sunlight intensity greater closer to equator
-sunlight intensity increases with elevation
65
How much rain do vines need during the growing season?
10-30 inches
-sandy soils w/ low water-holding capacity, warm climates and high-density plantings, young vines require more
66
What happens to the plant when it receives adequate water early in the season?
-shoots reach their full height prior to veraison
-Once berries have formed, mild water stress helps to maintain a moderate berry size and promotes the production of phenolic compounds
67
Why may vines require more water under windy conditions?
Leaves close their stomates under windy conditions to conserve water lost from the plant through transpiration - leads to less vigorous vines
68
How are the vines planted in Provence and SRhone to help protect against wind?
-the vineyard rows may be planted parallel to the prevailing wind, with vines trained low to the ground, in order to minimize damage
69
How are the vines planted in coastal CA to help protect against wind?
-planted perpendicular to the wind will “self-shelter,” resulting in higher sugar accumulation
70
Between what latitude do wine grapes generally grow?
30-50 degrees latitude
71
Do areas closer or farther from the equator have shorter growing seasons?
Regions further from the equator have shorter growing seasons but longer days which accelertes growth and development
72
What geographical influences may marginal climates rely on to increase viability on the grape plants?
-higher latitude
-rely on warming from bodies of water
-favorable orientations
-warm air currents
-lower latitudes may benefit from cooling influences like high elevation
73
What factor does altitude play in grape plants?
-reduces temperature but increases sunlight intensity
-for every 300-foot gain in elevation, the temperature will decrease by 1 degree Farenheit
-for every 1,000 foot increase, there is a 2% increase in sunlight exposure
74
Why are lower elevation sites more frost prone?
Because cold air sinks and lower-elevation bowls trap cold air
75
Why does the bottom of the hill typically have deeper soils and more available water?
Gravity causes soil and water to run downhill.
76
How does elevation affect diurnal shift, especially in areas prone to marine influence?
-Vineyards above the inversion layer tend to see smaller diurnal shifts
-vineyards below this layer warm during the day and cool, sometimes drastically, at night.
77
How does slope or degree of incline affect ripening?
-Because the sun's position changes throughought the day and year, steeper slopes will intercept the most sunlight on avg and tend to be earlier ripening
i.e. Côte Rôtie, Mosel, Grand Cru vineyards in Burgundy (mid-slope and steepest part of hill)
78
How is aspect or orientation defined? How does aspect affect the grape vines?
The cardinal direction that the vineyard faces.
-in N Hemisphere, south facing intercept most sunlight during the day and are warmer
-north facing tend to be the coolest sites
-east facing get more morning sun, reducing early morning humidity, thus minimizing disease pressure
-west facing exposed during the most intense part of the day, more prone to sunburn
79
Name four regions you will find fog.
Piemonte
Sonoma
Napa
Casablanca Valley
Columbia Valley
Sauternes
Tokaj
80
Why does fog occur? What is its affect on grape vines?
Results when warm, humid air encounters cooler air
-moderates temperatures
-reduces amount of sunlight
-increases disease pressure
81
How does proximity to a body of water affect grape vines?
Water has a large heat-holding capacity and changes temperature slowly
-As a result, proximity to bodies of water results in a more moderate temperature range on both a daily and annual basis
-Water can also reflect sunlight onto the vines, helping vineyards to ripen earlier.
-Air currents that move along water can bring cold or warm air into a region and create fog and mist that reduce the amount of sunlight reaching the vines.
82
Why does frost occur?
Result of an inversion layer, where cold air near the ground is trapped under warm air
83
What part of the grape vine is most succeptible to frost in the spring? Fall?
spring = shoots
fall = leaves (prevets vine from being able to ripen fruit further)
84
Name 6 ways in which frost is mitigated
Site Selection
Air Circulation
Sprinklers
Fans/Helicopters
Heat
Pruning Methods
85
How does site selection help with frost mitigation?
Because cold air settles into areas of low elevation, especially bowls that have no way of draining, early-budding (and therefore frost-prone) varieties should be avoided on these sites.
86
How do cover crops or the lack thereof mitigate frost?
Cover crops and plants growing on the vineyard floor should be mowed short prior to frost season to allow for better air circulation.
87
How do sprinklers help mitigate frost?
Overhead sprinklers can be used to warm the surface of the vine by a few degrees. As water freezes, it releases heat, so as long as water is constantly applied during a frost event, the temperature will remain just above freezing.
88
How do fans/helicopters help mitigate frost?
-disrupt the inversion layer to warm the environment.
89
How does heat mitigate frost?
Heaters and small res are used to warm the microclimate.
90
How do pruning methods help mitigate frost?
vines may be pre-pruned (spurs are left long)
vines may be late-pruned (encourages sacrificial buds to push early in the season, knowing that a later pruning will remove damaged tissue)
91
Name 5 regions where hail is prevelant.
Loire Valley
Burgundy
Bordeaux
Piemonte
Mendoza
92
How does hail afffect the grape vine?
-can remove entire shoots
-damage fruit and leaves reducing canopy's capacity to support fruit ripening
93
Name two ways to protect from hail.
-Netting
-fire hail cannons or rockets into air to disrupt hail formation
94
Name 3 drough resistant rootstocks.
St. George
110R
140R
95
Name 3 ways to protect agains drought or sunburn.
-drought resistant routstock
-Maintaing a protective canopy helps reduce risk of sunburn
-increase use of shadecloth or fabric that is hung in fruiting zine
-sprinklers or misters for evaportive cooling
-clay based sunscreen in Aus for fruit and canopy protection
96
What is base function of soil?
-Anchor the vine
-provide it with water and nutrients
97
What are the best soils for wine quality?
Free-draining soils with limited but adequate water and nutrients.
98
Describe igneous rocks. Give 3 examples
-formed from cooled magma
-strong, resistant to erosion, non-porous
-granite, volcanic, basalt (type of volcanic that is broken down into highly fertile clay soils
99
Describe sedimentary soils. Give 4 examples.
-formed from weathered rocks carried by wind or water and deposited in layers
-limestone, chalk, shale, sandstone
100
Describe metamorphic rocks and give 3 examples.
-igneous or sedimentary that have been subjected to heat and pressure
-may be crumbly and friable or very hard
-slate, shchist, gneiss
101
Define a rock.
A solid aggregate of minerals.
102
Define gravel.
Small pieces of rock.
103
Define soil.
Weathered rock sediments
combined with organic matter.
104
Define loam.
Soil texture comprised of a blend of different particle sizes, including sand, silt, and clay.
105
Define Aeolian.
Wind-blown soil, such as loess or parna.
106
Define alluvial.
Soil transported and deposited by (non-marine) surface water. Alluvial deposits have been cemented into rock.
107
Define colluvial.
Soil transported by erosion and gravity.
108
Define fluvial.
Soil weathered, transported, and deposited by rivers and streams.
109
Define marine.
Soil deposited in ocean beds.
110
Define glacial
Soil foremd and deposited by glaciers
111
Define till
Rocks and soil deposited by glaciers
112
Define soil pan.
An impenetrable layer of soil formed from compaction or cementation, such as hardpan or calcrete.
113
What is soil mainly comprised of?
Minerals
Water
Air
Organic Matter
114
115
What five factors do soil's formation depend on?
Parent Material
Climate
Tophography
Organisms
Time
116
How many years does it take to form an inch of topsoil?
100 years
117
What do you call the layers of sediments in which soil is organized?
Horizons
118
119
What is horizon A in relation to soil?
Topsoil
-outermost layer and ranges in depth from a few inches to a few feet
-least resembles composition of the underlying rock
-contains most of the the soil's organic matter, worms and microbes
120
What is humus?
-an important topsoil constituent
-nutrient-dense organic material
-holds water and nutrients in the soil
-reduces erosion
-helps avoid soil compaction
121
What is the horizon B layer of soil?
Subsoil
-less porous
-higher proportion of clay
-better water-holding capacity than the topsoil
122
What is the horizon C layer of soil?
-Substratum
-friable rock
-very few roots found here
-bedrock that is the outer layer of the earth's surface
123
What is the benefit of deep soils.
allow roots to access water from greater depths and provide the vine with more water throughout the growing season since the roots are in contact with a larger volume of soil
124
What is the disadvantage of shallow soils pertaining to water?
-shallow soils can flood easily
-have less available water than deeper soils
-require regular additions of water sometimes through irrigation
-not suitable for dry-farming except in climates that receive regular precipitation
125
What is ripping?
-involves dragging a large steel implement through the soil to break up an impenetrable layer
126
What is porosity?
-the amount of open space in the soil
127
What is permeability?
-the ability for water, oxygen, and roots to pass freely
128
How does compaction in the soil affect the grape vines?
-destroys porosity
-limited infiltration of water and oxygen in these soils inhibits root growth
129
How do you avoid compaction in the soil?
-avoid unnecessary tractor passes
-use tillage to aerate the soil in conjunction with cover crops (break up compacted areas with their roots)
130
What is soil texture and how does it influence porosity and permeability?
Texture = refers to the size of the soil particles
i.e sand, silt, clay
sand particles =largest
clay=smallest
131
Do rocks contribute water or minerals to the grape vine?
No
-but they increase drainage and limit erosion
132
How does soil color affect the grape vine?
Soil color is sometimes said to warm the microclimate of the vine.
-albariza = light=reflects sunlight back
-slate/basalt=dark=absorbs heat and radiates it throughout the night
133
What is difference b/w sand and clay in regards to water holding capacity?
sand=light soils, less water content, warm up faster than clay, initiates budbreak sooner and accelertes ripening-parasitic nematodes like sandy soil
clay =heavy
clay particles are small and pack more tightly together w/more surface area per volume-have better structure than sandy soils but prone to water logging and harbor higher populations of phylloxera
134
What types of vintages do sandy vs clay soils perform best.
Sandy=cool or wet vintages
clay=warm and dry year
135
Why are loam soils considered ideal for vineyards?
the combination of particle sizes achieves the ideal balance of drainage, provided by the sand, and fertility, provided by clay, that is desirable for balanced vine growth
136
What types of minerals make up rocks?
Quartz, mica, feldspar, gypsum, calcity, flint
137
What is the most important chemical property of soil?
pH
138
What is ph?
-a measure of the hydrogen ions, or protons, dissolved in a solution, where more acidic substances have more protons
139
What is the range of pH in soil?
3-10
acidic=below 6.5
neutral=6.5-8 (ideal for viticulture)
alkaline (basic)=over 8
140
Why are overly acidic soils not great for grape vines?
Might induce aluminum toxicity-detrimental to root growth
141
What causes high pH (above 8.5) in soils and what soils will you find high pH?
-result of significan lime content
-found in calcareous soil including lime, chalk, tufa, marlstone and marble
142
What is cation exchange capacity?
-The capacity of soil particles to hold nutrients (soil particles have a limited capcity to hold nutrients)
-a soil's pH influences the mineral nutrients that are available to the vine
-nutrients are stored by absorbing, or sticking to particles
-+ charged nutrients are attracted to soil particles which are - charges
-sand = large particles=less surface area/volume=less nutrient dense
-clay=rich in nutrients, nutrients bound more tightly=less available to the vine
-soil organic matter increases the CEC
143
Why does too much of one nutrient induce a deficiency in another?
nutrients compete for space on the CEC
-in acidic soils, protons take up too much space on the CEC->some nutrients are less available in low-pH soils
144
What deficiencies do acidic soils vs alkaline soils cause?
acidic=phosphate deficiency
alkaline=iron deficiency
145
Name a lime tolerant rootstock.
Vitis Berlandieri
-most rootsocks are not well adapted to high pH so a lime tolerant rootstock must be used
146
How do soils become more acidic over time?
-nutrients are leached from the soil and protons take their place on the CEC
-the decomposition of organic matter and respiration of roots release carbon dioxide which forms carbonic acid in the soil
-the use of ammonia-based fertilizers increases acidity over time
147
How can you amend soil acidity?
-through liming->application of limestone, dolomite or lime (calcium hydroxide)
148
How many essential nutrients do vines require for healthy function?
17
149
Which essential nutrients of the vine are supplied by water and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere?
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
150
What are the most important essential nutrients for the vine absored through the soil?
Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium (essential for plant growth and development)
-macronutrients
151
Name 3 other macronutrients important to a vine other than nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
Sulphur, calcium, magnesium
152
What is the funtion of nitrogen in a plant? Symptoms of deficiency? Symptoms of excess?
-Controls growth and development
-low vigor and chlorosis starting in older leaves
-dark green leaves, high vigor, reduced sugar and red color in fruit
153
What is the funtion of phosphorous in a plant? Symptoms of deficiency? Symptoms of excess?
-required for energy storage and transport
-yellow or red patches between veins on older leaves and low yields
-potassium, iron and zinc deficiency
154
What is the funtion of potassium in a plant? Symptoms of deficiency? Symptoms of excess?
-regulates water movements in and out of plant cells, important for red color development and deacidification of fruit during ripening
-older leaves turn yellow or red at the edges, can become dark reddish-brown with green veins and curl under, low yieds and low fruit pH
-elevated fruit pH, magnesium deficiancy
155
What is the funtion of calcium in a plant? Symptoms of deficiency? Symptoms of excess?
-component of cell walls, maintains integrity of vine's structure
-rare except on acidic soils
156
What is the funtion of magnesium in a plant? Symptoms of deficiency? Symptoms of excess?
-component of chlorophyll, important for photosynthesis and fruit ripening
-older leaves develop a green and yellow or red tiger-striped pattern with browing on edges. reduced sugar accumulation.
-reduced vigor and yields. rare.
157
What is the funtion of sulphur in a plant? Symptoms of deficiency? Symptoms of excess?
-component of proteins and vitamins
-chlorosis, rare since sulphur-based fungicides are used
158
Symptoms of iron deficiency?
-chlorosis
-yellowing of leaves either along leaf veins or within the leaf margin
159
Where do mobile nutrient deficiencies vs immobile nutrient deficiencies show up first?
mobile = older basal leaves first
immobile = younger leaves first
160
Name 5 micronutrients that are applied through fertilizers. When are fertilizers applies?
-boron, zinc, manganese, molybenum, iron
-anytimey during growing season except near bloom - can disrupt berry set
161
What is green manure?
Cover crops
162
What is massal selection?
-where cuttings are taken from numerous vines throughout a vineyard that may have undergone small mutations
163
In grapevine propogation, why would one choose a clone over massal selection?
Clone = genetically identical to parent plant, may result in more even, easy to manage vineyard
Massal selection =. increased genetic diversity - could have more disease resistance and complexity in the wines
164
What is grafting?
The fusing of plant tissues of two different species
i.e joining a vinifera scion to a non-vinifera rootstock
165
What is top grafting?
When a variety is changed in an existing vineyard by grafting onto established vines in the field
166
What is provinage?
Layering - a traditional method of propogation
-a shoot from a neighboring vine is laid down into the ground
-it roots and forms a new vine that may be separated from the mother vine
167
What is bench grafting?
When two dormant cuttings (the rootsock and the scion) are joined together at the nursery usually by a machine
168
What is field grafting?
-grafting in the vineyard
-rootstock planted in the spring and grows for a season
-scion is grafted on top in fall or spring
169
What is chip budding?
-small pieces of cuttings containing a single but are inserted into the rootstock
170
What is the benefit of northeast-soutwest orientations in warmer regions?
-maximize light interception while shading themselves during the hottest part of the day
-protects the fruit from sunburn and dehydration.
171
What is the benefit of rows that follow the slope vs those that are oriented across the slope? Downside?
Benefit:
-better airflow
-safer for equipment
Downside:
-can result in erosion
-fruit along the row may be uneven due to differences in elevation
172
What is J-rooting?
Occurs when vines are placed in holes with their roots bent upward
-common cause of young vine decline
173
1,000 vines per acre = how many vines per ha?
2,500
174
1 ha = how many acres?
2.5 acres
175
1 ton per acre = how many hectoliters/hectare of wine?
11-15 hectoliters per hectare of wine
176
What is cordon-trained spur-pruned?
-cordon-trained vines can have up to four cordons (unilateral, bilateral or quadrilateral)
-along each cordon are permanent spur positions located every few inches
-shoots grow from the spurs during the season
-during pruning shoots are trimmed back into spurs
177
What are the advanteges of cordon-trained, spur-pruned systems?
-good for warmer regions
-easiest, fastest and cheapest to prune
-shoot development is even with a clear fruit zone
-suitable for mechanization
-because these vines have more permanent wood than other systems, they store more water and nutrients and better tolerate adverse environmental conditions
178
What are the disadvantages of cordon- trained spur-pruned vines?
-an extra year may be required before fruit is harvested to establish the cordon and spur positions
-cordon-trained vines store more reserves through winter since they have more permanent wood, resulting in more vigor and a need for wider spacing
-spur-pruning is not appropriate for varieties that have low fertility in buds close to the cordon such as Nebbiolo or Carmenère since spur-training can reduce their yields
-risky on frost-prone sites
-buds push at the same time, opening up the vine to greater loss.
179
How do growers minimize the risk of loss from frost with spur-pruned vines?
they pre-prune the vines or leave kicker canes - these strategies help minimize frost risk
180
What is a kicker cane?
-Sacrificial canes that are left on spur-pruned vines during pruning
-Can be used to devigorate the vine or to avoid frost risk to the shoots at spur positions
-these shoots go through budreak first b/c of apical dominance, delaying budbreak in the remaining spurs
-eventually they are removed
181
What is head-trained, can pruned?
-Typically have one or two canes attached to the head of the trunk
-Guyot is a variation of cane pruning
-includes on spur for each fruiting cane attached directly to the head, called replacement or renewal spurs
-during growing season, shoots form on each bud along the cane and renewal spurs
-the grower selects and lays down a new fruiting cane during the pruning year, removing the cane from the previous season
-renewal spurs ensure there is always a good supply of canes near the head of the vines that may be retained for the coming year
182
What is a baguette?
A new fruiting cane in the Guyot system in which the grower lays down during pruning each year
183
What is the main advantage of cane-pruned vines?
-they have less permanent wood and fewer reserves, so they are less vigorous and better suited to high-density plantings
-often more productive than spur-pruned vines
-may require more fruit thinning to ensure adequate ripening
-fewer pruning cuts and may be less prone to fungal disease because of this
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What are the disadvantes of cane-pruned vines?
-require skilled labor for pruning
-increases farming costs
-not suitable for mechanization
-more susceptible to winter freeze because buds are located further from the permanent wodd, leaving them more vulnerable to damage
-due to apical dominance, budbreak and development are uneven along the cane, with the uppermost buds and those located at the vine's extremities favored
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What is another term for head-trained, spur-pruned vines?
Bush, gobelet
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What is head-trained, spur-trained vines?
They have many spur positions attached to arms that form from the head of the vines
-during the growing season, shoots will form at each spur position
-at pruning the spur positions will be restored
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Where are head-trained vines most conducive?
-warm, sunny growing reagions with limited water availability
-Spain, Southern France and vineyards with older plantings in California
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Why are head-training systems common with large-bunched varieties that are prone to rot?
The lack of wires and stakes prevents the clusters from becoming tangled in the trellis and damaged as the fruit develops
-i.e. Zinfandel and Petite Syrah
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Advantages of head trained systems?
-the least expensive to establish and manage because no trellis system is required - therefore canopy work is minimal
-the initial training and pruning of head-trained vines requires skilled labor, though pruning becomes easier over time
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Disadvantes of head-trained systems?
-the least productive
-not suitable for mechanization
-prone to crowding because all of the fruiting shoots are attached to the vine near the head
-frost risk, trunk disease and low-bud fertility (like cordon-trained and spur-pruned vines)
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What is the Sylvoz training system?
-used on high-yielding varieties and sites
-cordon-trained and cane-pruned
-results in a large number of fruiting shoots
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What is Taille Chablis training system?
-primarily used in the Champagne region
-involves a cane-pruning technique where multiple arms are trained horizontally along a wire
-each arm typically has a cane with a limited number of buds (usually 5)
-results in a controlled, vertically-positioned canopy
-essentially, it's a method of managing vine growth by limiting the number of fruit-bearing shoots per vine to maintain quality and yield.
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What is the Vallee de la Marne training system?
-Used for Pinot Menuier in Champagne
-Designed to handle the colder temperatures of the Marne Valley, where frost can be a concern
-This method involves pruning long canes, allowing for better fruit production under challenging conditions.
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What is the Cordon du Royat training system?
-it is considered a type of spur-pruning system originating from the town of Royat in France
-a single horizontal arm, called a cordon, is trained along a trellis, typically with short spurs growing off of it
-primarily used in Champagne which ensures even grape distribution and good exposure to sunlight while producing relatively low yields for high quality grapes
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What is the trellising system and what is the point of it?
-It is the structure of posts and wires that support the canopy
-accommodates the vine's natural impulse to grow vertically
-provides support fothe shoots and fruit (since vine is not able to support itself)
-helps spread the shoots out more evenly which improves airlflow and light penetration in the canopy
-this in turn helps reduce disease pressure and increase the photosynthetic capacity of the vine
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Which direction do vitis vinifera vines like to grow? Hybrid?
VV = Vertically
Hybrid = downward
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What is a divided canopy system and when is it appropriate to use?
-the vine's canopy is split into two separate sections, allowing for more sunlight exposure to the fruit by dividing the foliage and creating two distinct fruit zones
-usually positioned horizontally on either side of the trunk
-used for large vines that require more space and a more extensive trellis system
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What are some important factors in deciding on a trellising system?
Climate
-cool vs sunny
-humidity and airflow
Soil
Variety
Rootstock
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Are head-trained vines typically trellised?
No
-in sunny climates shoots may be left to drape onto the floor
-in cooler climates shoots may be tied to a central post for support and to allow more sunlight in the canopy fruit zone
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What is an example of a non-divided system?
-on low vigor sites, cordon and cane vines are often trained to one or two horizontal canes or cordons (non-divided system), since there is a single fruit zone
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What is an example of a trellising system used for a non-divided system?
Vertical Shoot Positioning (VSP)
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What is VSP?
-the shoots are trained vertically
-compressed into a single wall between several wires of support
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In which conditions is VSP appropriate?
High-density plantings
-respects the tendency of vinifera grapes to grow vertically
-results in good light interception
Low Vigor Vines
-shoots positioned for good airflowand coverage with anti-fungal sprays
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When is VSP not appropriate?
High vigor vines
-canopy may become too dense and humid
-restricts airflow and harbors disease
Wamer climates
-risk overexposure and may require more protection in the fruiting zone
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What type of VSP may be used where protection form sunlight is desired?
-a slightly wider variation of VSP
-spreader bars that open the canopy slightly
-this is also good for more vigorous vines since it allows for better airflow and sunlight penetration intot the canopy
-reduces crowding in the fruit zone
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What is California Sprawl?
-non-divided canopy system
-example of a two-wire system
-shoots are flopped over a single high wire that provides support and shade to the fruit zone
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Advantages and disadvantes of two-wire system compared to VSP?
Advantages: less expensive, require less canopy work, compatible with vigorous canopies
Disadvantages: May restrict air flow where the underside of the canopy gets less sun and susceptible to disease
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What is a high-wire system? What is an example?
-non divided canopy system
-bi-lateral cordon
-the cordon or cane is trained along a support wire, while the fruiting shoots sprawl unsupported in all directions
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Advantages and disadvantages of high-wire system.
Advantages: cost effective, good for mechanization, little canopy management, gets good light exposure because the fruit is located at the top of the vine
Disadvantages; doesn't offer suitable protection in warm climates, require a tall head light so hard to prune and harvest by hand
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Why is a divided canopy system good for a high vigor site?
-provides more space for the vine and avoids overcrowding.
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How are high vigor sites typically trained?
Quadrilateral cane
or
Cordon trained
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How can the canopy be divided in a divided canopy system?
-horizontally, with two parallel fruit zones located three to four feet apart at identical heights
-vertically, with an upper and lower fruit zone
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What is a disadvantage of a divided canopy system?
Uneven ripening
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What is Lyre?
A horizontally divided canopy system similar to VSP
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What is Wye?
A horizontally divided canopy system similar to California Sprawl.
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What is Geneva Double Curtain?
A divided canopy system similar to the high wire system.
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What is Scott Henry?
-A vertically divided canopy system
-a quadrilateral cane-pruned system, -two canes trellised vertically and two trellised downward
-used for high-vigor situations where tighter row spacing is desired
-the fruit from the upper and lower fruiting zones will ripen at different times
-fruit on the upper cane ripens first, another example of apical dominance
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What is Smart Dyson?
-A vertically divided canopy system similar to Scott Henry
-used for high-vigor bilateral cordon vines
-shoots are trained both up and down
-suitable for mechanization
-fruit ripens more evenly than Scott Henry
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What is Pergola called in Italy and Spain?
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What is the Pergola system?
-a classic system used on high-vigor, high-production vines in Southern Europe
-allows workers to pass below the vines
-make effecient use of vineyard space, allowing maximum light interception by the canopy while also providing adequate protection in the fruiting zone
-Whereas the canopy of other trellis systems can be thought of as perpendicular to the ground, in pergola systems, the canopy is parallel.
-The high height of the fruit zone makes pruning and harvesting challenging, and this layout doesn’t easily accommodate driving equipment through the vineyard.
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What type of trellis system is used in Rias Baixas? Why?
Pergola
-promotes airflow and reduces fungal disease pressure
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What is the pergola system?
-a classic system used on high-vigor, high-production vines in Southern Europe.
-allows workers to pass below the vines
-makes efficient use of vineyard space
-allows maximum light interception by the canopy
-provides adequate protection in the fruiting zone
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What is pergola called in Italy and Spain?
Tendone -> Italy
Latada -> Spain
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What is Te Kauwhata?
A veritcally divided training and trellising system in New Zealand.
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What is phenology?
A term that describes a vine's reoccurring patters of growth and development throughout the year.
-budbreak
-flowering
-fruit set
-veraison
-harvest
-leaf fall
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When does the growing season begin in the Northern Hemisphere? Harvest?
Budbreak: March or April
Harvest: August-November
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When does the growing season begin in the Southern Hemisphere? Harvest?
Budbreak: September or October
Harvest: February-May
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At what temperture does the vine being transporting sap?
50 degrees Fahrenheit
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Explain the transporting of sap from the roots to the buds.
-the sap contains nutrients and energy stores
-the vine transports these nutrients and energy stores from the roots to the buds to initiate shoot growth = weeping
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What is weeping?
Sap is pushed through open pruning wounds
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How do wet soils delay the start of the season?
-might prevent soils from warming
-stifle root growth
-delay weeping
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What happens at budbreak?
-The dormant buds begin to push
-the compressed shoots stored inside begin growing
-first leaves appear
-as the shoot elongates, new leaves emerge from the shoot tip
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What is apical dominance?
Where the buds that are located further from the ground push first
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What is the grand period of growth?
-rapid shoot growth
-shoots increase in lenght by inches per day
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What are the size of the shoots by the time of flowering?
-about half of their full size
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What is a pistil?
Female flower part
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What is the stamen?
Male flower part
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What happens to the grape flower petals during flowering?
During flowering, the grape flower petals that form a cap around each flower falls off and reveals the stamens.
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What happens during fertilization?
Pollen from the stamens falls onto the pistil, and each fertilized flower turns into a grape berry
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How does cold weather affect flowering?
It interferes with fertilization, reducing the number of berries and overall yield.
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When does blooming occur? How long does it last?
About 6-8 weeks after budbreak
Lasts 1-3 weeks
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When does fruit set occur? What is fruit set?
-Occurs shortly after flowering
-fruit set is when the fertilized flowers turn into berries - the yields for the season become more apparent
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How many flowers turn into berries (in favorable conditions)? What happens to flowers that are not fertilized?
-About 1/3
-unfertilized flowers fall off
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When does rapid growth phase occur?
Before flowering and after fruit set
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Where is the vines energy focused after fruit set?
The vine devotes more energy to fruit development.
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What is the color and firmness of berries at first? How do they increase in size?
-hard and green at first
-increase in size as cells within the berries divide
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What occurs inside the berries during fruit set?
Reactions begin taking place inside the berries
-this ultimately determines berry composition
-acid, tannin and some flafor precursors begin accumulating
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What conditions around the grape cluster significantly influence fruit composition?
Environmental conditions
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What is Coulure
"shatter"
-when a large percentage of berries are not fertilized successfully and few berries form
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What are some causes of coulure?
Vineyard conditions and practices:
-Pruning too early or severely can reduce vine's ability to fruit set
-excessively fertil soils
-improper selection of rootstocks or clones
Environmental:
-Cold weather at flowering
-rain at flowering can damage flowers and fruit set
-insufficient sunlight can contribute to poor fruit set
-some grape varieties such as Merlot and grenache are prone to coulure
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List red and white grape varieties susceptible to couloure.
White:
Muscat Ottonel, Chardonnay, Sauvignon blanc, Pinot gris, Riesling, Viognier, Petit Meslier, Pinot blanc, Chenin blanc, Arbane, Chasselas, Premsal Blanc
Red:
Grenache, Malbec, Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah, Zweigelt, Sangiovese, Zinfandel, Blaufränkisch
254
What is Millerandage?
"Hens and Chicks"
-a condition where berries contain a different number of seeds, resultin in different berry sizes
255
What nutrient deficiences typically causes millerandage?
-Boron deficiency: Boron is essential for successful flowering and fruit development, and a lack of it can lead to millerandage.
Zinc deficiency: Zinc plays a role in flowering and fruit set, and its deficiency can also contribute to millerandage.
Iron deficiency: Even temporary unavailability of iron, especially in calcareous soils, can negatively affect flowering and fruit set, leading to small, seedless berries.
Molybdenum deficiency: While less common than other nutrient deficiencies, molybdenum deficiency can also lead to uneven grape growth
256
Name 2 clones of chardonnay that are susceptible to millerandage.
Wente and Gingin
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What weather conditions lead to millerandage?
Cold, rainy, or otherwise unfavorable weather during flowering: These conditions can disrupt pollination and fertilization, leading to some flowers failing to set fruit or resulting in poor fruit set, which manifests as small, seedless berries.
Wind: Strong winds can damage flowers and prevent pollination
258
Name 3 factors other than weather and nutrient deficiences that cause millerandage?
Pre-bloom feeding injury on florets by banded grape bug and lygus bug: These insects can damage the flowers, preventing them from developing properly.
Immediate pre-bloom or bloom feeding by rose chafer: Similar to the above, insect damage can disrupt fruit set.
Fanleaf degeneration: This disease can also affect fruit set.
259
Name 4 grape varieties susceptible to millerandage.
Zinfandel
Gewurztraminer
Sangiovese
Chardonnay (Wente and Gingin clone)
260
What is veraison and how long does it last?
grapes change color from green to red—or, in the case of white grapes, from bright lime green to a pale, translucent green
4-6 weeks after flowering
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What occurs to the vine prior to veraison? By veraison what is happening?
Pre-Veraison: Vine focuses energy on growth & development.
At Veraison: Shoots reach full height; energy shifts to fruit ripening.
Color, flavor, & sugar accumulate.
Acidity & astringency decrease.
Fruit softens.
Post-Veraison: Berries continue growing due to cell enlargement, not cell division.
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When does harvest occur?
4-12 weeks after veraison for dry wine styles
For sweet wine styles, later in the fall
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What happens to the vine after harvest?
Canopy Color Change: Green → Yellow as leaves senesce.
Energy Redistribution: Vine shifts energy from canopy to trunk & roots.
Energy Storage: Vine stores energy for early development next year (budbreak → photosynthesis).
Nutrient Translocation: Nutrients move from leaves & shoots to permanent vine structures.
Season End: Leaf fall marks dormancy entry.
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What are the key decisions viticulturists make during pruning, and how do they impact vine growth and vineyard management?
Bud Selection: Determines number & position of future shoots.
Yield Control: Sets potential grape production.
Vine Structure: Shapes permanent form & balance.
Vineyard Organization: Facilitates future vineyard operations.
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How does pruning impact vine capacity, energy distribution, and long-term yield stability?
Reduced Vine Capacity: Fewer shoots & leaves limit total growth.
Energy Concentration: Remaining buds receive more energy → longer, stronger, more fruitful shoots.
Yield Stability: Balanced pruning prevents overtaxing & overshading, leading to consistent yields.
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What are the most fruitful buds?
-those on one-year-old wood (from last year’s fruiting shoots).
267
When does pruning occur?
Northern Hemisphere Window: December–March.
Early Pruning Risks: Higher chance of fungal trunk diseases & winter freeze.
Rain Precaution: Never prune in rain; wait several days after rain to reduce fungal risk.
Late Pruning Benefit: Can delay budbreak to avoid spring frost.
Late Pruning Risk: If done after budbreak, it can weaken vines.
Ideal Timing: As late as possible before the season starts, but labor availability often dictates timing.
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How does a pruner decide which cane to keep as the spur, and what factors influence this choice?
Spur Growth: A 2-bud spur produces 2 shoots; 1 is removed, 1 becomes the new spur.
Pruning Decision: Choose the best cane for renewal.
Cordon Spurs: Prefer lower cane to prevent spur positions from creeping too high.
Vertical Alignment: A vertical spur is ideal and may take priority over cane position.
