VN02 Flashcards
1
Q
Functions of muskoskeltal system x5
A
Support, protection, movement, production of RBC, calcium reserve
2
Q
Bone tissue made of
A
Solid connective. Made of calcium phosphate and collagen
3
Q
Types of bone tissue x2
A
Cortical bone and cancellous
4
Q
CaPO4
A
Calcium phosphate salts
5
Q
Cortical bone
A
Compact/woven. Solid on outside
6
Q
Cancellous bone
A
Spongy. Network on inside
7
Q
Cells inside bone tissue
A
Osteoblasts, osteoclast, osteocyte
8
Q
Osteoblasts
A
Produce new bone. Builders
9
Q
Osteoclast
A
Reabsorb old bone. Destroyers
10
Q
Osteocyte
A
Inactive
11
Q
Types of bone x5
A
Long, short, flat, sesamoid, irregular
12
Q
Parts of long bones x5
A
Diaphysis, epiphysis, metaphysis, physis, medullary cavity
13
Q
Diaphysis
A
Main shaft
14
Q
Epiphysis
A
Prominence forming ends
15
Q
Metaphysis
A
Joins diaphysis and epiphysis
16
Q
Physis
A
Growth plate between metaphysis and epiphysis
17
Q
Medullary cavity
A
Central. Filled with bone marrow
18
Q
Bone development x2 ways
A
Intramembranous ossificstion and endochondral.
Develops in foetus
19
Q
Intramembranous ossification
A
Flat bones only.
Two membranes form outside and tissue develops inside.
Stem cells become osteoblasts.
When becomes bone osteoblasts become osteocyte
20
Q
Endochondral ossification
A
Outline of bone formed from cartilage, then replaced with bone from inside out.
All bones except flat.
21
Q
Bone healing stages x4
A
- Haematoma forms
- Soft callus as new blood vessels enter area. Fibrous tissue/cartilage forms at site of fracture
- Hard callus as soft ossifies to become bone and solid union forms
- Remodelling until resembles as before
22
Q
Ideal Ca:p ration
A
1.1:1 or 1.3:1
23
Q
What vitamin is needed for calcium and phospharous absorption
A
D
24
Q
Low levels of calcium and phosphorus equal
A
Rickets, osteomalacia, slow/incomplete fracture healing
25
High levels of calcium and phosphorus equal
Increased bone formation, high blood calcium, muscle and nerve damage
26
Which vitamin is needed for bone formation
C
27
What mammals cannot synthesis vitamin c
Humans and guinea pigs
28
Other tissues associated with bone x3
Cartilage, connective and bone marrow
29
Cartilage
Solid (immovable).
1. Hyaline - smooth and solid. Covers joint surfaces. Endochondral ossification.
2. Fibrocartilage - cartilagenous joints and bone healing.
3. Elastic - slightly flexible. Inside larynx, pinns and nares
30
Connective tissue
Firm but flexible, dense, links parts of muskoskeltal system.
1. Periosteum - layers surrounding bones tightly to surface.
2. Ligaments - band or ring.
3. Tendons - narrow band.
4. Aponeurosis - band or sheet attached by muscle.
31
Ligament
Bone to bone
32
Tendon
Muscle to bone
33
Aponeurosis
Muscle to muscle or bone to muscle
34
Haemopoietic
Red blood cell creation
35
Bone marrow
Haemopoietic tissue. Pockets of cancellous bone and medullary cavity.
Fills whole cavity in neonates, then replaced by yellow marrow (fatty tissue).
In adults, red bone marrow only present in epiphysis of some long bones
36
Life or cycle of RBC
Around 3 months
37
Joint types x3
Meeting of two bones.
1. Fibrous (fused) - immovable, fused joints become bone. Soft spot when born. e.g. Skull.
2. Cartilagenous - no movement - held with solid fibrocartilage, immovable, but weaker than fibrous. e.g. Mandibular symphysis.
Cartilagenous - movement - fibrocartilage with gelatinous pulp at centre which allows movement e.g. Intervertebral discs.
3. Synovial joints - large range of movement. Fluid filled space held by ligaments
38
Meniscus
Fibrocartilage pad for shock absorption and protection
39
Types of synovial joints x5
1. Gliding/plane - sliding motion
2. Hinge - bend and straighten
3. Condylar - curved, two planes of movement
4. Ball and socket - fits into depression
5. Pivot - rotation only
40
Types of muscle x3
Skeletal, smooth, cardiac
41
Skeletal muscle
Striated. Attached to skeleton, voluntarily controlled, creates limb and trunk movement e.g. Walking, chewing, breathing
42
Smooth muscle
Cells very small. Involuntary, forms layers within organs e.g. Digestive tract
43
Cardiac muscle
Only found in heart. Involuntary
44
How movement occurs
Cells filled with layers of overlapping proteins (myofibrils). When stimulated, they contract and slide over to shorted muscle
45
Types of muscle movement
1. Flexion - bending (decrease angle)
2. Extension - straightening (increase angle)
3. Rotation - along axis of bone
4. Protraction - move limb cranially
5. Retraction - move limb caudally
6. Abduction - lateral movement of limb (away from body)
7. Adduction - medial movement of limb (towards body)
46
Axial skeleton
Central skeleton. Skull, hyoid, spin and ribcage
47
Appendicular skeleton
Bones of limbs, including pelvis
48
Foramen
Hole
49
Brachycephalic
Short nosed
50
Mesocephalic
Medium nosed
51
Doliocephalic
Long nosed
52
Hyoid
Small collection of bones in neck. Supports larynx connecting to temporal bone
53
Parts of vertebrae x4
Connected by ligaments and intervertebral discs.
1. Spinous process - dorsal projection
2. Transverse process - project laterally
3. Vertebrae foramen - central hole when spins cord runs through
4. Vertebral body - main cylinder of bone
54
Regions of spine x5
Cervical
Thoracic - transverse process with rib
Lumbar - transverse process project cranio-ventrally
Sacral - sacro-iliac joint with pelvis
Coccygeal - similar to sacral vertebrae, then become smaller and smaller. Can be 6-23 bones
55
Vertebral formula for dog and cat
C7 T13 L7 S3
56
Cervical vetebrae
All mammals have 7.
C1 - Atlas bone
C2 - Axis bone
For maximum head movement. All others ar small and box like
57
Guinea pig vertebral formula
C7 T14 L6 S2
58
Rabbit vertebral formula
C7 T12-13 L7 S4
59
Sternum
Ventral part of ribcage joined by cartilagenous joints. Most cranial is manubrium. Most caudal is xiphoid.
60
Clavicle
Cats, rabbits and guinea pigs have. Dogs do not
61
Forelimb connection
No bony connection to the rest of skeleton. Attacked via muscles
62
Acromion
Prominence at distal end of scapula spine
63
How are metacarpal digits numbered
Medial to lateral. Dew claw would be 1
64
Acetabulum
Socket forming hip joint
65
Bones making up pelvis x3
Ilium, ischium and pubis
66
Obturator foramen
Large hole on each side of pelvis to allow vessels and nerves
67
Where is the greater trochanter
Femur
68
Which bones involve olecranon, teochlesr notch, anconesl process and coronoid process
Ulna
69
Calcaneous
Point of hock
70
Number of digits for each species
Cats, dogs and rabbits 5 on forelimb and 4 on hindlimb.
Guinea pigs 4 on forelimb and 3 on hind limb
71
Rabbit skeleton
Adapted for jumping. Hind limbs are much longer. Distal tibia and fibula are fused, as are distal radius and ulna.
Scapulsrbenlsrged process called suprahamate process
72
Joints in forelimb
Shoulder
Elbow
Carpus
Inter-phalangeal
73
Joints in hindlimb
Sacro-iliac
Hip
Stifle
Hock
Inter-tarsal
Inter-phalangeal
74
Important ligaments
Teres/round ligaments of hip (femur to acetabulum).
Cruciate in Stifle - distal femur to proximal tibia
75
Intracapsular ligamentsb
Inside joint capsule
76
Extracapsulsr ligaments
Outside joint capsule
77
Splanic skeleton
Bones not part of main skeleton. e.g. Os penis
78
Trunk
Main part of the body
79
Origin
Attachment with the least movement, usually on trunk, or most proximal to trunk
80
Insertion
Attachment with most movement, usually more distal
81
How are limbs attached to skeleton
With tendons
82
Three groups of facial muscles
Facial expression, eyeball, mastication
83
Important muscles for mastication
Masseter - closes the jaw. Lateral mandible to zygomatic arch. Against gravity
Temporalis - closes the jaw. Lateral skull to coronoid process of mandible. Against gravity.
Diagstricus - opens jaw. With gravity. Causal mandible to occipital bone.
84
Spinal muscles x2
Epaxial - sit above. Extension of spine
Hypaxial - sit below. Flexion of spine (H for Halloween cat)
85
Respiratory muscles x2
Involved in breathing.
1. Diaphragm - separates abdomen and thorax. Attached xiphoid, lumbar vertebrae and ribs. Dome shape when relaxed, during inspiration it contracts and flattens.
2. Intercostal muscles - lie between ribs. Contraction of muscles causes inspiration
86
Parturition
Giving birth
87
Abdominal muscles x4 pairs
External abdominal oblique
Internal abdominal oblique
Rectus abdominus
Transverse abdominus
Join in the midline via linea alba
88
Functions of abdominal muscles
Contains and protects abdominal contents, assist with inspiration during dysponea, abdominal compression for urination, defecation, parturition
89
Important tendons x3
Bicipital - origin of biceps brachii
Patella - insertion for quadriceps
Achilles - insertion for hamstrings
They are big and more easily/commonly damaged
90
um measurement
Micrometers (1,000th of a millimeter)
91
How small are animal cells
10-20 micrometers normally. Some can be up to 100
92
Cells
Can be specialised for specific functions.
Basic structures always the same.
93
What parts of cells can be seen under microscope
Cell membrane, cytopladm, lysodomes, vacuoles, nucleus and nucleolus
94
What's parts of cell can't be seen under microscope
Mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulus, centrosome, golgi apparatus
95
Cell membrane
Also known as plasma membrane. Surrounds entire cell.
Semi permiable
Formed of phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins which act as receptor and gateways
96
Phospholipid bilayer
Phosphorus attached to fat
97
Cytoplasm
Fluid found inside cell. Contains water, salt, nutrients and organelles
98
Organelles
Membrsnoid bound structures withing cell. Own specific functions.
Nucleus, nucleolus, vesicles, lysodomes, mitochondria, centrosome, ribosomes, ER, golgi apparatus
99
Nucleus
Control center of cell containing all DNA
100
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid
101
Nucleolus
Active area of nucleus, contains enzymes and RNA (ribonucleic acid)
102
Vesicles
Small pocket within cell containing waste and other cellular products e.g. Neurotransmitter
103
Lysosomes
Vesicles containing digestive enzymes for bacteria and debris within or outside cell
104
Mitochondria
Energy production - glucose and nutrients broken down to create energy that cell can use
105
Centrosome
Made up of centroles, involved in cell division
106
Ribosomes
Proteins synthesis
107
ER
Endoplasmic reticulum.
Long network of membranes in protein creation and transport
108
Golgi apparatus
Secretes protein out of cell
109
Cytokinesis
Process of cell division
110
Types of cell division x2
Mutosis and meiosis
111
Microvilli
Small projections of cell membrane, increase surface area - always in digestive tracts e.g. Small intestine lining
112
Flagella
Sparse, long hairs found on surface of cell, provides locomtion e.g. Sperm and bacteria
113
Cilia
Mutilpile small hairs found on surface of cells, move fluids and mucous
114
Inclusions
Accumulation of cell products within cell. No memranes, so not organelles. e.g. Melanin within melanocytes
115
mSv
Millisieverts
116
Max levels of mSv as a whole body dose for one year
Employees 18+ - 20
Trainees - 6
Anyone else - 1
117
Film badges
Normally blue.
Contain x ray film and metal filters. Processed after being work and total radiation calculated
118
Thermoluminescent dosimeters
Normally purple or orange.
Contain lithium fluoride crystals, stone energy when exposed to radiation. Measured by heating them
119
ALARP
As low as reasonably practicable
120
Minimum distance required from primary beam of x ray
2 meters
121
When the collimated area is reduced, what decreases
Amount of scatter radiation
122
Minimum recommended LE for lead gowns
0.25mm
123
Rubber sleeves and gloves LE thickness
0.35mm
124
Overexposire to ionising radiation and carcinogenic damage occurs, it may cause
Development of tumour
125
Before performing radiography for the first time, a risk assessment must be performed by the
HSE
126
Does an RPA require a validated certificate
Yes
127
How should lead gowns be stored
Hanging, not folded
128
Low voltage transformer
Controls electrical supply to cathode filament, producing electrons. Minimal energy required to heat small filament.
Decreases mains voltage of 240 volts to 10-20 in circuit
129
High voltage transformer
Converts normal mains voltage of 240 to kilovolts
130
The autotransformer
Ensures voltage supplied to high voltage transformer is constant at 240 volts, eliminates fluctuations
131
The rectifier
Converts alternating current supplying x ray matching into direct current
132
kV
Kilovoltage. Affects energy/penetrsting power of x rays - quality
133
mA
Milliampere affects the number of x rays produced - quantity
134
S
Timer affects period of time x rays are produced - quantity.
Modern day combines mAS
135
What should x ray beam cover
The area of interest, but no more
136
Radiography
Technique of visualising internal structures of the body using x rays
137
How to x rays travel
Straight lines. Sometimes when they collide with an object, they bounce off
138
How are x rays produced
High speed collision of atoms.
When travelling at high speeds and suddenly stop, energy is converted into x rays.
X ray machine fires electrons at target to produce effect. If they don't hit with enough force, they turn into heat energy
139
What happens inside the tube head
Electrons generated at the negatively charged cathode. They travel rapidly away to strike the positively charged anode
140
How much of the energy produced by elections becomes useful x rays in primary beam
1%. 99% becomes heat
141
The cathode
Negative part of the x ray tube. Made of coiled tungsten wire filament, with molybdenum focussing Cup. Uses tungsten for high melting point
142
How many electrons does tungsten have surround nucleus. What is the chemical symbol
74.
W.
143
Exposure time
Length of time electrons are travelling from cathode to anode, measured in seconds
144
The anode
Target for electrons. Also made of tungsten or molybdenum. During exposure, anode is positively charged. Strong current between anode and cathode created a potential difference.
When electrons hit, kinetic energy is converted into heat and x rays
145
Stationary anode
Tungsten target embedded in block of copper cooling fins. Target small, so number of electrons it can cope with is lower (mA) as is penetrsting power (kV). Heat dispersal is limited
146
Rotating anode
Avoids problem of small target area, by having target spread over rotating disc to increase surface area.
Rotates when exposure made, resulting in electrons bombarding larger area of tungsten target. Allowed more electrons made at cathode (mA) to bombard at higher velocity (kV). Increases power.
147
Penumbra
Like a shadow. Blurring at edges of an image
148
When x rays are directed at matter, they may
Pass through, be stopped and absorbed, bounce off and change direction
