Vocabulary A-Z Flashcards
(222 cards)
1
Q
ABA design
A
a single-case design in which the response to the treatment condition is compared to baseline responses recorded before and after treatment.
2
Q
ABAB design
A
extensions to ABA to include reintroduction of the treatment condition
3
Q
Accessible Population
A
the population of research participants that is practically available to the investigator.
4
Q
Active consent
A
verbally agreeing and signing a form consenting to participate in research
5
Q
active deception
A
deliberately misleading research participants by giving them false information
6
Q
Additive and interactive effects
A
differences between groups is produced because of the combined effect of two or more threats to internal validity.
7
Q
Alpha Level
A
the point at which one would reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis
8
Q
Alternative hypothesis
A
the logical opposite of the null hypothesis
9
Q
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)
A
a statistical procedure in which group means are compared after adjusting for pretest differences; statistical test used when you have a one quantitative DV and a mixture of categorical and quantitative IV’s (the quantitative IV is called a covariate)
10
Q
Anchor
A
descriptors placed on points on a rating scale
11
Q
ANCOVA
A
abbreviation for analysis of covariance.
12
Q
ANOVA
A
abbreviation for analysis of variance
13
Q
Animal rights
A
the belief that animals have rights similar to humans and should not be used in research
14
Q
Animal welfare
A
Improving the labratory conditions in which animals live and reducing the number of animals used in research.
15
Q
Anonymity
A
keeping th eidentity of the research participant unknown
16
Q
Archived research data
A
data (usually quantitative) originally used for a different research project.
17
Q
assent
A
agreement from a minor to participate to research after receiving an age-appropriate explanation of the study
18
Q
assignment measure
A
measure used to assign participants to experimental and control groups. those with scores below the cutoff score are assigned to one group and those with scores above the cutoff are assigned to the other group.
19
Q
attrition
A
loss of participants because they don’t show up or they drop out of the research study
20
Q
authority
A
a basis for acceptance of information because it is acquired from a highly respected source
21
Q
automation
A
technique of totally automating experimental procedures so that no experimenter-participant interaction is required
22
Q
axial coding
A
second stage of data analysis in grounded theory: focus is on making concepts more abstract and ordering them into the theory.
23
Q
Bar graph
A
graph that uses vertical bars to represent the data values of a categorical variable
24
Q
Baseline
A
the target behavior of the participant in its naturally occurring state or prior to presentation of the treatment condition.
25
beneficence
acting for the benefit of others
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between-participants design
groups are produced by random assignment and the different groups are exposed to the different levels of the independent variable
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between-subjects variable
type of independent variable where different participants receive different levels of the independent variable.
28
biased sample
a non-representative sample
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binary forced choice approach
participant must select from the two response choices provided with an item
30
blind technique
a method whereby knowledge of each research participants treatment condition is kept from the experimenter.
31
Carryover effect
a sequencing effect that occurs when performance in one treatment condition affects performance in another treatment condition
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case
a bounded system
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case study
qualitative research method in which the researcher provides a detailed description and account of one or more cases
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categorical variable
variable that varies by type or kind
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causal description
description of the consequences of manipulating an independent variable
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causal explanation
explaining the mechanisms through which a casual relationship operates
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causation
a term whose meaning is debated by philosophers, but in everyday language implies that manipulation of one event produces another event
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Cause
the factor that makes something else exist or change
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cause-and-effect relationship
relationship in which changes in one variable produce change in another variable.
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ceiling effect
situation in which participants' pretest scores on the dependent variable are too high to allow for additional increases
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cell
combination of levels of two or more independent variables
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cell mean
average score of the participants in a single cell
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census
collection of data from everyone in the population
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changing-criterion design
a single case design in which a participant's behavior is gradually shaped by changing the criterion for success during successive treatment periods
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checklist
participants asked to check all response categories that apple
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chi-square test for contingency tables
statistical test used to determine if a relationship observed in a contingency table is statistically significant.
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clinical significance
a type of practical significance
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closed-ended question
a question where participants must select their answer from a set of per-determined response categories
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cluster
a collective type of unit that includes multiple elements
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cluster random sampling
sampling method where clusters are randomly selected
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coefficient alpha
the most frequently used index of internal consistency
52
Cohen's d
the difference between two means in standard deviation units.
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cohort-sequential design
design that combines crossectional and longitudinal elements by following two or more age groups over time
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collective case study
study of multiple cases for the purpose of comparison
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comparative case study
another name for a collective case study
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compatibility thesis
position that quantitative and qualitative research methods and philosophies can be combined.
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Complete counterbalancing
enumerating all possible sequences and requiring different groups of participants to take each of the sequences
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concurrent probing
obtaining a participant's perceptions of the experiment after completion of each trial.
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concurrent validity
degree to which test scores obtained at one time correctly relate to the scores on a known criterion obtained at approximately the same time
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concurrent verbal report
a participant's oral report of the experiment, which is obtained as the experiment is being performed.
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confidence interval
interval estimate inferred from sample data that has a certain probability of including the true population parameter.
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confidentiality
not revealing information obtained from a research participant to anyone outside the research group
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confounding
occurs when extraneous variables co-occurs with the independent variable and affects the dependent variable.
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confounding extraneous variable
an extraneous variable that co-occurs with the independent variable and affects the dependent variable
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confounding variable
an extraneous variable that if not controlled for will eliminate the researcher's ability to claim that the IV causes changes in the DV
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constancy
the influence of an extraneous variable is same on all of the independent variable groups
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constant
something that does not vary.
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construct validity
the extent to which a construct is adequately represented by the measures used in a research study
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content-related evidence or content validity
Judgment by experts of the degree to which items, tasks, or questions on a test adequately represent the construct.
70
contingency question
an item directing the participant to different follow-up questions depending on the initial response.
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contingency table
table used to examine the relationship between categorical variables
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control
1) a comparison group, 2) elimination of the influence of extraneous variables, or 3) manipulation of antecedent conditions to produce a change in mental processes and behavior.
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control group
the group of participants that does not receive the active treatment condition and serves as a standard of comparison for determining whether the treatment condition produced any causal effect
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convenience sampling
use of people who are readily available, volunteer, or are easily recruited for inclusion in a sample.
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convergent validity evidence
validity evidence based on the degree to which the focal test scores correlate with independent measures of the same construct
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correlation coefficient
index indicating the strength and direction of linear relationship between two quantitative variables
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correlational study
non-experimental research study based on describing relationships among variables and making predictions.
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counterbalancing
a technique used to control sequencing effects
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counterfactual
what the experimental group participant's responses would have been if they had not received the treatment.
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criterion-related validity
degree to which scores predict or relate to a known criterion such as a future performance or an already-established test.
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critical region
the area on a null hypothesis sampling distribution where the observed value of the statistic, if it fell in this area, would be considered a rare event.
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Cronbach's alpha
another name for coefficient alpha
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cross-case analysis
case study analysis in which cases are compared and contrasted
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crossover effect
an outcome in which the control group performs better at pretesting but the experimental group performs better at post-testing.
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cross-sectional study
study conducted at a single time period, and data are collected from multiple groups; data are collected during a single, brief time period.
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culture
the shared beliefs, values, practices, language norms, rituals, and material things that the members of a group use to interpret and understand their world.
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curvilinear regression
the type of regression analysis that can accurately model curved relationships
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curvilinear relationship
a nonlinear (curved) relationship between to quantitative variables.
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cyclical variation
any type of systematic up and down movement on the dependent variable over time.
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Data set
a set of data
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data triangulation
use of multiple sources of data
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debriefing
a post experimental discussion or interview about the details of the study, including an explanation for the use of any deception.
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deception
giving a participant a bogus rationale for the experiment.
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deduction
a reasoning process that involves going from the general to the specific
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degrees of freedom
the number of values that are "free to vary"; it's used when computing a statistic to be used in inferential statistics.
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dehoaxing
debriefing the participants about any deception used in the experiment.
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demand characteristics
any of the cues available in an experiment, such as instructions, rumors, or setting characteristics, that influence the responses of the participants.
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dependent variable
variable assumed to be influenced by one or more independent variables.
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description
the portrayal of a situation or phenomenon
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descriptive research
research that attempts to describe some phenomenon, event, or situation.
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descriptive statistics
the type of statistical analysis focused on describing, summarizing, or explaining a set of data.
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descriptive validity
the factual accuracy of the account reported by the researcher.
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desensitizing
eliminating any undesirable influence that the experiment might have had on the participant.
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design components
structures and procedures used in constructing research designs
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determinism
the belief that mental processes and behaviors are fully caused by prior natural factors
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differential attrition
in a multi group design, groups become different on an extraneous variable because of differences in the loss of participants across the groups.
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differential carryover effect
a treatment condition affects participants performance in a later condition in one way and in another way when followed by a different condition
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differential history
the groups in a multi-group design experience different history events that result in differences on the dependent variable.
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differential influence
when the influence of an extraneous variable is different for the various groups.
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direct effect
an effect of one variable directly on another variable: depicted as a single arrow in a path model.
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directional alternative hypothesis
an alternative hypothesis that includes a "less than sign" or a "greater than sign."
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discoverability
the assumption that it is possible to discover the regularities that exist in nature.
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discriminant validity evidence
validity evidence based on the degree to which the focal test scores do not correlate with measures of different constructs.
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disproportional stratified sampling
stratified sampling where the sample proportions are made to be different from the population proportions on the stratification variable.
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documents
personal and official documents that were left behind.
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double-barreled question
asking about two or more issues in a single question
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double-blind placebo method
neither the experimenter nor the research participant is aware of the treatment condition administered to the participant
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double negative
a sentence construction that contains two negatives
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Duhem-Quine principle
states that a hypothesis cannot be tested in isolation from other assumptions.
120
Ecological validity
the degree to which the results of a study can be generalized across settings or environmental conditions.
121
effect size indicator
index of magnitude or strength of a relationship or difference between means
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effect
the difference between what would have happened and what did happen when a treatment is administered
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effect size
the magnitude of the relationship between two variables in a population.
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electronic survey
survey conducted over the internet
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element
the basic unit selected
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e-mail survey
electronic survey where participants are contacted directly via e-mail, and the survey instrument is attached to the message
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Emic perspective
insider's perspective
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empirical adequacy
present when theories and hypotheses closely fit empirical evidence.
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empiricism
the acquisition of knowledge through experience.
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equal probability of selection method (EPSEM)
sampling method in which each individual element has an equal probability of selection into the sample
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equating the groups
using control strategies to make the influence of extraneous variables constant across the independent variable groups sot hat the only systematic difference between the groups is due to the influence of the independent variable.
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equivalent-forms reliability
consistency of a group of individuals' scores on two versions of the same test
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essence
phenomenological structure of the experience
134
estimation
the branch of inferential statistics focused on obtaining estimates of the values of population parameters.
135
eta squared
the amount of variance in the dependent variable uniquely explained by a single independent variable.
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ethical dilemma
the investigator's conflict in weighing the potential cost to the participant against the potential gain to be accrued from the research project.
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ethnocentric
judgment of people in other cultures based on the standards of your cuture
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ethnography
qualitative research method that focuses on the discovery and description of the culture of a group of people.
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etic perceptive
the researcher's external or "objective" perspective
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event sampling
observations are recorded every time a particular event occurs
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exhaustive categories
response categories that cover the full range of possible responses
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existing or secondary data
collection of data that were left behind or originally used for something different than the current research study.
143
experimental criterion
in single-case research, repeated demonstration that a behavioral change occurs when the treatment is introduced
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experimental group
the group of participants that receives the treatment condition that is intended to produce an effect.
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experimental-group-higher-than-control-group-at-pretest-effect
an outcome in which the control group performs better than the experimental group at pretesting, but only the experimental group improves from pre to post testing.
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experimental research
the research approach in which one attempts to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating the independent variable
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experimenter attributes
biasing experimenter effects attributable to the physical and psychological characteristics of the researcher.
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experimenter effects
actions and characteristics of researchers that influence the responses of the participants.
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experimenter expectancies
biasing experimenter effects attributable to the researcher's expectations about the outcome of the experiment.
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explanation
determination of the cause or causes of a given phenomenon.
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extended fieldwork
spending enough time in the field to fully understand what is being studied
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external validity
degree to which the study results can be generalized to and across other people, settings, treatments, outcomes, and times.
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extraneous variables
variable that might compete with the IV in explaining the outcome.
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face validity
prima facie judgment of whether the items appear to represent the construct and whether the test or instrument looks valid.
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face-to-face interview method
survey method where participants are interviewed in a face-to-face setting
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Factor analysis
a statistical analysis procedure used to determine the number of dimensions present in a set of items
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factorial designs
two or more independent variables are studied to determine their separate and joint effects on the dependent variable.
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Factorial design based on a mixed model
a factorial design that uses a combination of within-participants and between-participants independent variables
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falsificationism
a deductive approach to science that focuses on falsifying hypotheses as the key criterion of science
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field experiment
an experimental research study that is conducted in a real-life setting.
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field notes
notes taken by the researcher during (or immediately after) one's observations in the field.
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fieldwork
a general tern for data collection in ethnographic research
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floor effect
situation where participants pretest scores on the dependent variable are too low to allow for additional increases.
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focus group
collection of data in a group situation where a moderator leads a discussion with a small group of people
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frequency distribution
data arrangement in which the frequencies of each unique data value is shown.
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Gatekeepers
group members who control a researcher's access to the group.
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going native
overidentification with the group being studied so that one loses any possibility of objectivity.
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grounded theory
methodology for generating and developing a theory that is grounded in the particular data
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group-administered questionnaire method
survey method where participants fill out the questionnaire in a group setting.
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Histogram
graph depicting frequencies and distribution of a quantitative variable.
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history
any event that can produce the outcome, other than the treatment condition, that occurs during the study before posttest measurement.
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holism
Idea that a whole, such as a culture, is more than the sum of its individual parts.
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homogeneity
the degree to which a set of items measures a single construct.
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hypothesis
the best prediction or a tentative solution to a problem.
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hypothesis testing
the process of testing a predicted relationship or hypothesis by making observations and then comparing the observe facts with the hypothesis or predicted relationship, the branch of inferential statistics focused on determining when the null hypothesis can or cannot be rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis.
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idiographic causation
a single intentional action for a particular person in a local situation with an observable result.
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incomplete counterbalancing
enumerating fewer than all possible sequences and requiring different groups of participants to take each of the sequences.
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increasing control and experimental groups effect
an outcome in which the experimental and the control groups differ at pretesting and both increase from pre to posttesting, but the experimental group increases at a faster rate.
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independent samples t test
the significance test of the difference between two means that uses the t probability distribution.
180
independent variable
variable that is presumed to cause changes in another variable.
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indirect effect
an effect occurring through a mediating variable
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individual matching
a matching technique in which each participant is matched with another participant on selected variables.
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induction
a reasoning process that involves going from the specific to the general.
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inferential statistics
the type of statistical analysis focused on making inferences about populations based on sample data.
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informed consent
informing the research participant of all aspects of the study that might influence his/her willingness to volunteer to participate.
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inside-outside validity
used in mixed methods research and is present when the researcher provides both the insider and the objective outsider perspectives.
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instrumental case study
case study in which the researcher studies a case in order to understand something more general than the particular case.
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instrumentation
changes from pretest to posttest in the assessment or measurement of the dependent variable.
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interaction design
single-case design used to identify interaction effects
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interaction effect in single-case research
the combined influence of two or more independent variables
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interaction effect
when the effect of two or more IVs on the DV is more complex than indicated by the main effects.
192
interdependence
violation of design assumption in which changing one target (participant, outcome, or setting) produces changes in the remaining targets.
193
internal consistency reliability
consistency with which items on a test measure a single construct
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internal validity
the correctness of inferences made by researchers about cause and effect
195
internet experiment
an experimental study that is conducted over the internet
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interobserver agreement
the percentage of time that different observer's ratings are in agreement.
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interpretive validity
accurately portraying the participants subjective viewpoints and meanings.
198
interrater reliability
the degree of consistency or agreement between two or more scorers, judges, observers, or raters.
199
interrupted time-series design
a quasi-experimental design in which a treatment effect is assessed by comparing the pattern of pre and posttest scores for a single group of research participants.
200
interval estimation
placement of a range of numbers around a point estimate
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interval scale
a scale of measurement with equal intervals of distance between adjacent numbers
202
interview protocol
data collection instrument used by the interviewer.
203
interviews
data collection method in which an interviewer asks the interviewee a series of questions, often with prompting for additional information
204
intrasubject counterbalancing
administering the treatment conditions to each individual participant in more than one order
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intrinsic case study
case study in which the researcher is only interested in understanding the individual case.
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intuition
an approach of acquiring knowledge that is not based on a known reasoning process.
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investigator triangulation
use of multiple investigators to collect and interpret the data.
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known groups validity evidence
degree to which groups that are known to differ on a construct actually differ according to the test used to measure the construct.
209
laboratory experiment
an experimental research study that is conducted in the controlled environment of a laboratory.
210
laboratory observation
observation conducted in lab setting set up by the researcher
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leading question
a question that suggests how the participants should answer.
212
level of significance
another name for alpha level.
213
life world
a person's subjective inner world of experience
214
Likert scaling
a multi-item scale is used to measure a single construct by summing each participant's responses to the items on the scale.
215
Line graph
a graph relying on the drawing of one or more lines
216
loaded term
a word that produces an emotionally charged reaction.
217
logic of discovery
the inductive or discovery part of the scientific process
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logic of hypothesis testing
the five steps in the process of significance testing
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logic of justification
the deductive or theory-testing part of the scientific process
220
logical positivism
a philosophical approach that focused on verifying hypotheses as the key criterion of science
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longitudinal study
a study in which data are collected at two or more points in time
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low-inference descriptors
descriptions that are very close to participants' words or a re direct verbatim quotes.
