W1- Beginnings and foundations of development

Question 1

What is parental acceptance-rejection theory?

Answer 1

A socialisation theory that aims to understand how major psychological and environmental conditions can predict how accepting or rejecting caregivers are towards their children. Focuses on expressions, impact and origins of love from caregivers.

Question 2

What are the effects of caregiver acceptance?

Answer 2

It leads to children being more likely to have high self-esteem, independence, and emotional stability. This has implications for forming healthier relationships.

Question 3

What are the four universal behaviours that indicate acceptance and rejection?

Answer 3

warmth/affection (coldness)
hostility/aggression
indifference/neglect
undifferentiated rejection

Question 4

What is development?

Answer 4

“(…) continuities and changes in a person’s physical self, feelings and patterns of thinking. Changes include growth, mastery, gains and losses.”

Question 5

What is a developmental theory?

Answer 5

“A set of statements that are an orderly, integrated description, explanation and prediction of human behaviour in various developmental domains”

Question 6

What is the approved set of strategies used to test a theory?

Answer 6

Hypothesising about relationships between concepts
observing patterns in data
determining how well patterns in data align with hypotheses
explaining the patterns in the data and relating to the theory being tested or a new theory

Question 7

What are the qualities of a good theory?

Answer 7

Internally consistent- makes logical sense
Provide meaningful explanations
Open to scientific evaluation
Stimulate new thinking and research
Guide those who this information would benefit in their professional or personal lives

Question 8

What are the six dimensions of national cross-cultural communication suggested by Hofstede’s research to determine organisation structure and employee motivations across cultures?

Answer 8

Power distance index (PDI)- to what degree do org members prefer autocratic, superior-subordinate relationships
Uncertainty avoidance (UAI)- degree to which org members avoid stress-creating situations in work relationships
Individualism vs collectivism (IDV)- integration with immediate family vs extended families and others
Masculinity vs femininity (MAS)- effect of different gender roles on values and attitudes and therefore carrying out of tasks and work relationships
Long-term orientation vs short-term orientation (LTO)- valuing adaptation and pragmatic problem solving vs valuing respect for traditions and fulfilling social obligations
Indulgence vs restraint (IND)- to what extent simple joys are allowed to be fulfilled

Question 9

What is developmental psychology?

Answer 9

“The study of growth, change and stability across the lifespan”
biological processes, genetic endowment, cognitive development, physical growth, personality and social development

Question 10

What are the three domains of development?

Answer 10

physical- biological changes
cognitive- thinking, language, memory
psychosocial- emotions, interpersonal relationships

Question 11

What is Baltes’ model of normative and non-normative development?

Answer 11

Emphasises that biological and environmental factors interact to create normative age-graded, normative history-graded, and non-normative influences on development.
Also emphasises how development varies across time as the interactions between environmental and biological factors vary over time.

Question 12

What is the link between physical and cognitive development?

Answer 12

Physical development of the brain is associated with cognitive development. Different areas of the brain develop on different timelines as do different aspects of cognitive development

Question 13

What factors are associated with developmental trajectories varying between individuals?

Answer 13

Culture, biological processes, socioenvironmental factors, non-normative life events (eg. brain injury, born pre-term)

Question 14

Describe Bronfenbrenner’s ecological settings for developmental change

Answer 14

It is a developmental framework which emphasises that children are actively involved in their development and significantly influenced by their cultural environment and the way the four contextual levels interact.

Question 15

What are the four contextual levels in the ecological settings theory?

Answer 15

microsystem- the patterns of interaction and individual experiences
mesosystem- the individual’s connections and relationships
exosystem- the settings/situations these interactions take place in
macrosystem- the cultural factors of the society including values and beliefs which forms the framework for an individual’s life and influences the the three inner levels.

Question 16

What is the importance of time in the ecological settings theory?

Answer 16

The environment, or chronosystem, is always changing over time and therefore affecting an individuals relationship with the environment and the four contextual levels, thus affecting development.

Question 17

What are key themes in development?

Answer 17

Continuity within change- how certain qualities, behaviours and skills are continuous despite change in related qualities, behaviours and skills.
Lifelong growth- the potential for emotional, cognitive, and physical growth
Changing vantage points- the effect of developmental experiences on one’s perspectives
Developmental diversity- factors associated with individual differences in developmental trajectories

Question 18

What is a cross-sectional study?

Answer 18

participants of different ages at one point in time

Question 19

What is a longitudinal study?

Answer 19

same individuals observed at different points in time

Question 20

what is a naturalistic study?

Answer 20

observe participants in naturally occurring situations/circumstances

Question 21

what is an experimental study?

Answer 21

circumstances carefully controlled

Question 22

what is correlational study?

Answer 22

observing two behaviours/qualities and statistically determining how likely they are to occur/vary together

Question 23

what is a survey?

Answer 23

brief questionnaire asking many participants about their beliefs or behaviours

Question 24

what is an interview?

Answer 24

face-to-face conversation with partcipant

Question 25

what is a case study?

Answer 25

in-depth investigation of just one individual/small no. of individuals

Question 26

what is an ethnography?

Answer 26

aims to uncover a culture's values and social processes through observation and field notes

Question 27

what variables change between different research methods?

Answer 27

timeframe control sample sizes

Question 28

what is ethics?

Answer 28

"codified set of values or principles that guide the conduct of specific subsets of people" eg APS code of ethics for psychologists in Australia

Question 29

What are the major similarities between codes of ethics for psychologists?

Answer 29

protection of participants from harm maintaining privacy if deception is used must be justified and not cause harm informed consent

Question 30

what are the main ways that different developmental theories vary?

Answer 30

The extent to which development reflects maturation (nature) vs experience (nurture) Continuous process vs discrete series stages Whether individual takes active or passive role Is it focused on broad or narrow aspect of development

Question 31

What are the three psychodynamic theories?

Answer 31

Freudian theory Erikson's psychosocial theory Mahler's phases of development

Question 32

How are psychodynamic theories used today?

Answer 32

To describe formation of attachments, development of autonomy and self-control in infancy and toddlerhood, and development of intimate relationships during adolescence anda adulthood

Question 33

Describe Freudian theory

Answer 33

series of stages focus on first six years of childhood three main components of personality: id (unconscious, seeking immediate unrestrained pleasure) ego (rational and conscious, seeks satisfaction within constraints of superego) superego (moral and ethical, conscience, restricts satisfaction of desires) personality and behaviour determined by balancing biological drives and social expectations based on retrospective accounts of upperclass women in Vienna considered outdated bu does influence understanding of personality development, neuropsych, attachment theory and psychopathology

Question 34

Describe Erikson's psychosocial theory

Answer 34

discrete stages- each have conflicts needing to be resolved development driven by need to become integrated into social and cultural environment personality and sense of self develop continuously as interactions between internal psychological factors and external social factors change- changes in these interactions influenced by biological development three main influences on developmental changes- biological/physical strengths and limitations, unique life circumstances and developmental history, and social, cultural and historical factors foundation of research today on crises faced at different life periods development is reversible

Question 35

What are the three behavioural and social cognitive learning theories?

Answer 35

Pavlov's classical conditioning Skinner's operant conditioning Bandura's social learning theory

Question 36

What are applications of behavioural social cognitive learning theories today?

Answer 36

Behavioural modification techniques and CBT approaches ACT- acceptance commitment therapy- based on learning theories

Question 37

Describe Pavlov's classical conditioning

Answer 37

The process of associating a neutral stimulus with stimulus already associated with a response such that the neutral stimulus will lead to that response automatically- forming a reflex

Question 38

Describe Skinner's operant conditioning

Answer 38

Reinforcement of a behaviour leads to carrying out the behaviour more frequently positive reinforcement- rewarding stimulus increases response negative reinforcement- removal of undesirable stimulus increases response punishment- adding unpleasant stimulus or removing pleasurable one to weaken or suppress response

Question 39

What are four main cognitive development theories?

Answer 39

Piaget's cognitive theory Neo-Piagetian approaches Information-processing theory Moral development theories

Question 40

What are main applications of cognitive development theories?

Answer 40

fostering infant cognitive development and critical thinking in adolescence explaining development of sensorimotor, symbolic thought, language, and problem solving examine changes in crystallised (learned) and fluid intelligence (processing information)

Question 41

Describe Piaget's cognitive theory

Answer 41

discrete stages necessary in order to progress to next stage- progress through direct learning, social transmission, and maturation active role of children sensorimotor- coordination of sensory and motor activity, developing object permanence, and learning about world using senses preoperational (2-7)- language and symbolic representation, egocentric worldview, make-believe play, lack of logic in thinking concrete operational (7-11)- logical thinking to solve concrete problems, no abstract thinking yet, objects organised into hierarchies, classes and subclasses formal operational (11-adulthood)- abstract, systematic thinking, able to solve abstract problems using systematic solutions, able to deduce testable inferences assimilation- new problems solved using existing schemes accomodation- altering of existing schemes to solve new problems

Question 42

Describe information-processing model

Answer 42

Mind likened to computer in which there are distinct parts contributing to thinking in a specific order- taking in info through senses, coded, transformed, and organised, held briefly in sensory register/memory, some info passed on to short-term memory and is analysed for patterns (attention and perception at play), information given particular attention tranferred to STM, then info either forgotten or remains through rehearsal and can be transferred to long-term memory (LTM) through elaboration and organisation

Question 43

What are the two contextual development theories?

Answer 43

Bronfenbrenner's bioecological systems theory Bygotsky's sociocultural theory

Question 44

What are applications of contextual development theories?

Answer 44

understanding how context affects individual development understanding how different factors influence issues Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development- development of problem solving and culturaly specific nature ethological theory- understanding temperament, emotion and attachment

Question 45

Describe Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory

Answer 45

Interactions between individuals and representatives of the culture (eg teachers and parents) lead to development of higher mental functions developmental tasks occur within sone of proximal development- range of tasks not achieveable for the child without scaffolding- support and assistance from adults and peers- gradually withdrawn to encourage independence and growth ZPD increases as individual improves with assistance

Question 46

What are the five adulthood and lifespan development theories?

Answer 46

Vaillant's adaptive mechanism and Levinson's seasons of adult lives which are both normative-crisis approaches of adult development- distinct stages and lifelong Timing of events model Dynamic systems perspective Developmental psychopathology framework

Question 47

Describe Valiant's sadaptive mechanism approach

Answer 47

based on longitudinal research- male participants development lifelong process- influenced by relationships and adaptive mechanisms/coping styles mature coping styles- sublimation (redirecting anxiety and unacceptable impulses to acceptable goals), altruism- sign of healthy brain and long-term loving relationships

Question 48

Describe Levinson's seasons of adult lives

Answer 48

Biolographical studies of middle aged men early adulthood middle adulthood late adulthood stages defined by social relationships and desires, values, commitment, energy, and skills invested in them

Question 49

Describe timing of events model

Answer 49

life events markers of developmental change

Question 50

Describe Dynamic system perspective

Answer 50

children's development is consistent but variable acknowledges how dynamic development is understanding individual differences

Question 51

Describe developmental psychopathology framework

Answer 51

Understanding normative development in order to understand non-normative development

Question 52

What are the benefits of having different theories?

Answer 52

help systematically organise ideas stimulate new thinking, guide understanding and professional practice together can complement one another and create a more holistic understanding- no complete explanation alone

Question 53

What are the three types of gene abnormalities?

Answer 53

abnormal chromosomes abnormal genes multifactorial

Question 54

What is heritability?

Answer 54

estimate of how much genes vs environment contribute to differences in a particular trait within a specific population genetic influence vs how much environment allows genes to be expressed 0-100- higher means greater genetic influence

Question 55

What are four study methods used to study heredity?

Answer 55

Twin studies- monozygotic and dizygotic Adoption studies- are behaviours and traits more similar to biological or adoptive family Twin adoption studies- identical twins raised by two different adopted families- most effective for measuring heritability Linkage and association studies- looking at polymorphisms, look at co-inheritance in linkage study or compare frequency b/w populations in association studyi

Question 56

What is polymorphism?

Answer 56

DNA segment that acts as a genetic marker for other genes that they are always inherited together with in predictable pattern

Question 57

What is epigenesis?

Answer 57

The theory that the genetic expression involved in development is constantly being influenced by the environment.

Question 58

What is reaction range?

Answer 58

The idea that genes do still have control over development by creating a restricted range across which environmental influence can take place. Eg. certain genetically determined height range but environmental influence determines exact height within that range.

Question 59

What are the stages of prenatal development?

Answer 59

Germinal 1-2 weeks: zygote divides, blastocyst forms and implants in uterus, formation of amnion, placenta and umbilical cord Embryonic 3-4 weeks: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm form. Neural tube develope, neurons produced, heart starts beating, ribs, muscles and digestive tract form 5-8 weeks: arms and legs, finger and toes, placenta and umbilical cord function, dugestive system develops, liver produces blood cells, embryo respond to touch Fetal 9-12 weeks: genitals form and release sex hormones, fingernails toenails taste buds develop, audible heartbeat Second trimester 13-24 weeks: movement felt with fetus kicking, turning, hiccups, sucking thumb, breathing amniotic fluid, respond to sound, vernix and lanugo develop on skin Third trimester 25-38 weeks: fully developed lungs, 2/3 of birth weight gained, rapid brain development, sleep-wake cycle same as newborn

Question 60

What is canalisation?

Answer 60

The tendency of genes to strongly favour a certain phenotypic outcome despite environmental influences

Question 61

What is plasticity?

Answer 61

critical periods in development during which environment significantly influences development

Question 62

What are risk factors?

Answer 62

Factors increasing chance of medical problems for child later on