W4) 8) Human Memory Systems

Question 1

What is memory?

Answer 1

Definition – The ability to store and retrieve information over time​

There are multiple different types of memory and evidence suggests these different types are stored differently in the brain​

What are the different types of memory?​

Question 2

What are the different types of memory?

Answer 2

Iconic memory​ - lasts under a second. Eg. We put pressure on our hand, we will feel it a fraction of a second after we let go.

Short term memory​ - Information held for less than 30 seconds. +/- 7 item capacity. Need to do subvocal rehersals. This is when you need to keep saying it inside your head to remember a phone number for example.

Working memory​ - the small amount of information that can be held in an especially accessible state and used in cognitive tasks

Intermediate term memory​ - This is between the short and long term memory. 30 seconds to about 2 weeks. Eg. Finding car in a car park.

Long term memory​ - Theoretically it is permanent.

Episodic memory (autobiographical)​ - Situations or events involving yourself.

Semantic memory ​- This is facts about the world. Anatomically different spaces.

Declarative​ - This is information you know you know, but you might not always be able to access it.

Procedural​- How do to action. Eg. How to ride a bike, play chess.

Prospective​ - Memory of the future intentions. 30 intentions at any one time. You can’t subvocally do that - this is unconscious.

Damage to one system is one loss, damage to another system is another loss = double dissociation.

Question 3

What is the critical concepts in neuropsychology?

Answer 3

Dissociation and double dissociation​

Help to identify neural substrates of various brain functions​

Dissociation = When you know localisation of brain damage or lesion and find that one function is knocked out but other related functions are preserved e.g. individual looses ability to name category of animals but can name all other objects.​

Double dissociation = Lesion in specific brain area impairs function x but not y then demonstrate that lesion of separate brain area impairs y but not x. ​

Patternson & Plaut “the gold standard was always a double dissociaation” 2009​

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Question 4

What are the key processes in memory?

Answer 4

There are three key processes in memory:​

Encoding​

Processes occurring during initial encounter with to be remembered stimulus = stage 1​

Storage ​

storage in the memory system = stage 2​

Retrieval​

recovering stored information from the memory system = stage 3​

Forgetting can result from failure of any of these stages, rather than a process in itself.​

Consolidation = working memory to long term memory.

Question 5

What is the memory structure?

Answer 5

Looking stuff up on Google, using satnavs makes our brains worse…
See if you can figure it out for 2 mins before Googling to not lose function.

Question 6

What are the sensory memories?

Answer 6

Auditory [Echoic] Memory​

Holds information for approx. 3 seconds​

Visual [Iconic] Memory​

Holds information for approx. 250 ms​

Question 7

What is short term memory?

Answer 7

STM – now termed Working Memory (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974)​

This consists of three components:​

Central Executive: this resembles what we would call ‘attention’​

Phonological Loop: holds information in a speech-based form​

Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad: specialised for holding visual and spatial information​

Question 8

What is working memory?

Answer 8

WM is a much more dynamic store than a unitary STM​

Working memory has a limited capacity (LTM is theoretically without limit, in both capacity and duration of storage)​

It is usually found that we can only store around 7 ± 2 pieces of information in memory (Miller, 1956)​

But beware of chunking – grouping bits of information to make remembering easier.​

Question 9

What is double dissociation in memory?

Answer 9

Are short term memory and long term memory distinct?​

If they are we would presumably see patients with impaired STM and preserved LTM? If we also saw the reverse pattern preserved STM and impaired LTM this would be an example of a double dissociation.​

Researchers and clinicians have found this pattern to be supported. ​

E.G. KF = patient with impaired STM but fine LTM (Shallice & Warrington, 1970)​

Question 10

What is interference in memory recall?

Answer 10

Interference in WM​

Traces only remain in WM with repeated rehearsal (i.e. attending to the information)​

They are therefore prone to interference​

Retroactive interference:​

New information interferes with the retention of old information in WM (trying to remember your old phone number, having used your new number for a few months; finding it difficult to revert back to manual gear changes having recently been shown how to use an automatic)​

Proactive interference:​

Old information interferes with the recall of new information (mistakenly giving your old phone number instead of your new one; attempting to change gears manually in a newly bought automatic)​

Question 11

What is the primacy and recency effect?

Answer 11

Primacy-Recency or the Serial Position Effect​

When presented information in serial order, we remember more from the beginning and end of the list, at the expense of the intermediate items​

Question 12

What are the levels of processing?

Answer 12

Craik & Lockhart (1972) – ​

Depth of encoding determines later memory for information​

Processing at encoding can be shallow or deep. The greater the processing the meaning of stimuli at encoding the deeper the level of processing and greater likelihood of later storage and retrieval. ​

Importantly Craik & Lockhart disagree that rehersal will improve LTM as it just repeats previous operation. BUT rehersal has beneficial effects but they are small and not for every type of memory e.g. Prospective Memory may not benefit. ​

Question 13

What is long term memory?

Answer 13

There is a transfer process from working memory into long-term memory - as a result of rehearsal and elaboration​

Very large capacity​

Storage can be for a few minutes, but in theory can be for a lifetime​

Question 14

Why do we all have different memories of the same thing?

Answer 14

In general, meaning is encoded rather than exact representation​

e.g. you’ll remember that you received a letter from your friend regarding a party this weekend, but you won’t remember the exact wording (Sachs, 1960’s)​

Storage into long-term memory is known as consolidation​

Question 15

What is consolidation?

Answer 15

Involves structural change: the pattern of neural pathways are changed​

Long term potentiation: strengthening of synapses, believed to be the cellular foundation for memory​

Research in to how to induce LTP useful for dementia treatment​

Rats given NMDA receptor antagonists display memory deficits. Mice bred with enhanced NMDA function show greater LTP and better memory​

Requires metabolic activity for minutes/hours after the stimulus has been presented​

Believed that the hippocampus plays a vital role in consolidation​

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Question 16

How do you retrive?

Answer 16

Cue required (e.g. prompt, reminder, question)​

Original stimulus reconstructed using information from cue​

The more information available, the easier the retrieval​

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A good ‘filing system’ also aids retrieval​

e.g. mnemonic’s (memory aids, Method of Loci)​

Make something personally relevant to you and you’re more likely to remember it​

Retrieval can be affected by interference​

Proactive – new phone number replaces old number​

Retroactive – old route home blocks new route home​

Tip of the tongue phenomenon​

Do not click on these until after session​

Question 17

What are the factors affecting retrieval?

Answer 17

Levels of Processing​

The more something is elaborated at time of encoding, the easier it will be to retrieve​

Organisation​

Of concepts in memory (also, associations between concepts stored in LTM may facilitate recall)​

Context​

Being in the same place/emotional state as the time of encoding facilitates recall​

State Dependent Memory​

Question 18

What are the declarative and non-declarative knowledge?

Answer 18

Declarative knowledge (sometimes known as explicit memory):​

Memory for facts, for information that can be conveyed by statements​

Involves conscious recollection of events / facts ​

Encompasses semantic and episodic memories​

e.g. Your birthday​

Non-declarative:​

Generally doesn’t involve conscious recollection e.g. procedural memory​

Implicit memory​

Priming - Thinking of one thing makes you think of other things Eg. Doctor = nurses.

Question 19

What is state/emotion dependent recall?

Answer 19

Information is better recalled when the individual is in the same state during encoding and retrieval – this includes both the environment and their internal mental state​

E.G. works with drugs and alcohol too (Weissenborn 2000). ​

Godden & Baddely 1975 – Divers learned words on land and underwater – recall was best when the learning environment matched the retrieval environment. ​

Question 20

What is procedural memory?

Answer 20

Procedural knowledge​

Memory for how to do things/skills​

Often in the absence of conscious recollection​

e.g. How do you tie your shoelaces?​

Driving​

Riding a bike​

Playing chess?​

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Question 21

What are semantic and episodic memories?

Answer 21

Both forms of Declarative Memory​

Semantic memory: ​

Memory for facts, ideas​

what is the capital of Peru?​

the meaning of the word ‘DOG’​

Episodic memory:​

Memory for events, situations – centered around you​

your first day at university​

what did you have for breakfast today?​

Question 22

What are episodic/autobiographical memory?

Answer 22

Most episodic memory decline over time however decline is not uniform over all memories e.g. ​

Bahrick et al (1975) – memories of student days showed remarkable preservation – Reminiscence bump = Surprising perseverance of memories occurring between ages of 10 and 30. Why?​

Question 23

What is the reminiscence bump?

Answer 23

Stability of early adulthood memories is remarkable​

Why​

Majority of first time experiences. Novelty is memorable because of the lack of proactive interference from previous learnings​

More evidence for reminiscence bump for positive than negative memories (Bertsen & Ruben, 2002). ​

Question 24

What is a flashbulb memories?

Answer 24

Flashbulb memory = detailed and extremely vivid memories regarding circumstances surrounding very shocking event e.g. September 11th. ​

Only occur with shocking and emotionally significant events. Evolutionarily adaptive?​

Emotional arousal during encoding enhances retention​

Also frequently rehearsed and talked about​

One time events that you will remember you’ll happen. Eg. Where were you during 9/11?

Question 25

What are recognition and recall?

Answer 25

Recognition:​

Sensing that a stimulus has been previously encountered, sense of familiarity​

Generally easier than recall, as information is contained in the cue​

Recognition can be direct from a set stimuli or from a mental search of LTM store​

Recall​

Reconstruction of a stimulus using the information available from the cue and information from LTM​

Checked by the process of recognition​

Greater ‘cognitive demand’ than recognition​

Recall can be direct from the cue or arise after problem-solving strategies have been employed​

Memory is not entirely ‘stable’ and recall and recognition can be inaccurate​

Eye Witness Reports (Loftus, 1979) ​

Participants watch a film of an accident, one includes a STOP sign, the other a YIELD sign. Using specific wording, you can change people’s memory:​

‘How big was the stop sign by the road?’ ​

The participant won’t remember the fact that they saw a yield sign​

‘How fast were the cars going when they smashed in to each other?’​

Participants will recall the cars were going faster than they actually were​

Question 26

How do you forget?

Answer 26

The main causes of forgetting from either working memory or long-term memory:​

Passage of time​

Rapid decay of information from WM​

Cell death leads to loss of LTM (can be accelerated e.g. dementia)​

Interference​

Interference to storage in WM e.g. pro-/retroactive ​

Connections are remolded over time in LTM, influenced by pro- and retroactive interference of information​

Question 27

What happens to memory with ageing?

Answer 27

Pheonomena​

Infantile amnasesia = inability to remember events from early childhood. ​

Generally people can not remember anything before 2 years. First memories usually occur between 2 and 5 years. Probably because brain regions responsible for episodic memory are not sufficiently developed. ​

Reminiscence bump = preserved memories for 10 to 30 years (many first time occurances)​

Normative ageing​

Speed of processing declines (Perfect, 1994)​

Memory declines and forgetfulness increases but shouldn’t interfere with ongoing functioning​