WACE GRIND

Question 1

Active immunity

Answer 1

Immunity produced by the body manufacturing antibodies against a foreign antigen.

Question 2

Passive immunity

Answer 2

Immunity produced by the introduction of antibodies from another person.

Question 3

Artificial immunity

Answer 3

Immunity produced by giving a person an antigen which triggers the immune response or by giving them antibodies to an infecting antigen.

Question 4

Natural immunity

Answer 4

Immunity produced that occurs without any human intervention.

Question 5

Sodium-potassium pump

Answer 5

Moves 2 potassium ions into the cell for every 3 sodium ions removed. This creates a net reduction of positive ions inside the cell.

Question 6

Sodium and potassium charges

Answer 6

Sodium is positively charged, potassium is negatively charged.

Question 7

Cell replacement therapy in the context of Alzheimer’s Disease.

Answer 7

Stem cells are isolated and cultured. They are then differentiated into neural cells and then reintroduced into damaged areas of the brain in order to halt the progression of the disease.

Question 8

What are the two types of antibiotics.

Answer 8

Bacteriostatic: inhibits bacteria reproduction by disrupting protein synthesis.
Bactericidal: kills bacteria by changing the structure of the cell wall or by disrupting essential enzyme processes.

Question 9

Cortisol (adrenal cortex)

Answer 9

Promotes normal metabolism, helps withstand stress and repair broken tissue.
Glycogenolysis in liver and gluconeogenesis.

Question 10

Aldosterone (adrenal cortex)

Answer 10

Increases reabsorption of sodium from tubules into blood.
Secreted in response to: decrease in sodium ions, blood volume, blood pressure or an increase in potassium ions.
Via a sodium-potassium pump.

Question 11

Calcitonin (thyroid gland)

Answer 11

Decreases calcium and phosphate levels in blood by decreasing calcium reabsorption by kidneys and breakdown of bone.
Moves phosphate into bone.

Question 12

Parathyroid hormone (parathyroid gland)

Answer 12

Increases calcium and phosphate levels in blood by releasing calcium from bones.

Question 13

Cerebral cortex areas

Answer 13

Sensory areas - interprets impulses from receptors
Association areas - processes information from senses and makes it useful, emotional processes.
Motor areas - controls muscular movement.

Question 14

Lobes and functions

Answer 14

Frontal lobe - thinking, problem solving, language, emotions, personality, movement control.
Parietal lobe - processing temperature, touch, taste, pain and movement.
Occipital lobe - vision.
Temporal lobe - processing memories and linking them with senses, receives auditory information.
Insula - recognition of different senses and emotions, addiction and psychiatric disorders.

Question 15

Reflex properties

Answer 15

Stimulus is required, stereotyped, rapid, involuntary.

Question 16

Electrochemical change

Answer 16

A change in electrical voltage that is bought about due to a change in chemicals.

Question 17

Multipolar neuron

Answer 17

One axon, many dendrites. Interneuron and motor neurons.

Question 18

Bipolar neuron

Answer 18

One axon, one dendrite. Eyes, nose, ears where they take impulses from receptors.

Question 19

Pseudounipolar neuron

Answer 19

One axon which separates into two extensions, one connects to dendrites and other to axon terminal. Sensory neuron.

Question 20

Cranial nerves vs spinal nerves

Answer 20

Cranial are 12 pairs from the brain, are mixed.
Spinal nerves are 31 pairs from spinal cord, are mixed nerves joined by two roots.

Question 21

Ventral vs dorsal root

Answer 21

Ventral root - contains motor neuron axons with cell bodies in spinal cord grey matter.
Dorsal root - contains sensory neuron axons with cell bodies in dorsal root ganglion.

Question 22

Somatic sensory neurons vs visceral sensory neurons

Answer 22

Somatic sensory - brings impulses from skin and muscles.
Visceral sensory - brings impulses from internal organs.

Question 23

Autonomic vs somatic pathway

Answer 23

Autonomic: goes across two neurons (first myelinated, second unmyelinated), has a ganglion, has both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves, acetylcholine or noradrenaline at its effector.
Somatic: goes across one myelinated neuron, either sympathetic or parasympathetic nerve, only acetylcholine.

Question 24

Alzheimer’s vs Parkinsons

Answer 24

Alzheimer’s: loss of acetylcholine, neurons in brain shrink and disappear, abnormal material builds up, neurofibrillary tangles inside neurons, amyloid plaques around remaining neurons. Disrupts messages, damages connections between neurons.
Parkinson’s: deficiency in neurotransmitter dopamine due to progressive degeneration of nerve cells in brain’s basal ganglia.

Question 25

Hormones alter cell activity by:

Answer 25

- Activating certain genes in nucleus so that a particular enzyme or structural protein is produced. - Changing the shape or structure of an enzyme so it is ‘off’ or ‘on’. - Changing enzyme/structural protein production rate by changing transcription or translation rate during protein synthesis.

Question 26

Steroid vs protein/amine hormones

Answer 26

Steroid: lipid soluble. Binds to receptor in cytoplasm, controls particular protein formation by acting on genes in nucleus. Slow, long-lasting. Protein/amine: water soluble. Activates second messenger in the cell which causes a cascade of reactions in the cytoplasm which activates enzymes that change reaction rate in the cell. Rapid, short-lasting.

Question 27

How does CO2 cause a drop in pH?

Answer 27

When CO2 dissolves in water, it forms H2CO3 (carbonic acid), which breaks down to H+ and HCO3- (bicarbonate ions). H+ causes pH to drop.

Question 28

Voluntary breathing control

Answer 28

Cerebral cortex has connections via descending tracts of spinal cord which bypass respiratory centre. If CO2 becomes too high, respiratory centre will take over.

Question 29

Bacteria vs virus

Answer 29

Bacteria: cell wall, no nucleus with DNA as circular plasmids, can be seen with a light microscope, many produce toxins. Virus: protein coat around genetic material, genetic material either DNA or RNA, can only be seen with an electron microscope, can only reproduce inside another living cell (induces cell to produce more virus particles), some have external lipid envelope.

Question 30

Phagocytes

Answer 30

Digest micro-organisms and cell debris. Monocytes: enters infected tissue, differentiate into macrophages. Macrophage: remove microbes and dying cells via phagocytosis. Destroy pathogens. Neutrophils: first to enter tissue and destroy pathogens (esp. inside cells). Dendritic cells: detect, engulf and process.

Question 30

Inflammatory response

Answer 30

Reduces pathogen spread, destroys them and prevents the entry of additional pathogens. Repairs damaged tissues and cell debris. Begins the repair of damaged tissue. Redness, swelling, pain, heat.

Question 30

Histamine vs heparin

Answer 30

Histamine: increases blood flow via vasodilation which makes capillary walls more permeable and more fluid moves through capillary into tissue. Heparin: prevents clotting of immediate area. Clot forms around area, slows pathogen spread.

Question 31

Carbon-14 dating

Answer 31

Based on the decay of radioactive carbon-14 to nitrogen. All organic tings contain carbon-14, and when an organism dies, the amount of carbon-14 is fixed. As carbon-14 has a half-life of 5730 years, by calculating the ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12, the fossil's actual age in years can be determined.

Question 32

Potassium-argon dating

Answer 32

Based on the decay of radioactive potassium-40 to form argon-40 and calcium-40. As a rock ages, the amount of potassium decreases while the amount of argon increases. As potassium-40 has a half-life of 1250 billion years, by determining the ratio of potassium-40 to argon-40, an actual on years can be determined.

Question 33

How can mtDNA be used to determine a genetic relationship?

Answer 33

MtDNA has a higher mutation rate than nuclear DNA. The similarities in mtDNA can be used to identify relatedness. The number of mutations in mtDNA can be assessed, and the less the diversity in their mtDNA, the more closely related they are.

Question 34

Each stage of the polymerase chain reaction process.

Answer 34

Denaturing: hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs are broken, separating the DNA strands, 94-96 degrees Celsius. Annealing: primers are added which bind to the complementary base sequences, marking the areas to be elongated, 50-60 degrees Celsius. Extension: DNA polymerase extends the DNA strand by adding amino acids to the complementary strands to make a new DNA copy, 70 degrees Celsius.

Question 34

Ways mutations can be caused

Answer 34

Mutagens: substances that are known to increase the rate of changes to DNA. DNA replication: errors during the process that alters DNA code. Cell division: errors during the process that alter the genes or chromosomes in daughter cells formed.

Question 34

Ethics

Answer 34

Voluntary participation - subjects shouldn't be pressured into taking part in the investigation. Informed consent - subjects should be informed about the investigations purpose, procedures, possible risks and benefit, and should only be sought consent after. No risk of harm - no risk of harm, psychological or physiological. Confidentiality - identities of participants not to be revealed to anyone but those directly involved in the study. Animal use - should be valid, human, justifiable and considerate.

Question 35

Acheulin tools

Answer 35

Flaked around the edges, first in one direction and then the other, until they form roughly two-faced lumps, tear-drop shaped. Used as hand axes.

Question 36

Mousterian industry

Answer 36

Stone flakes made from the Levallois technique used to form various cutting, scraping, piercing and gourging tools.

Question 37

Levallois technique

Answer 37

A piece of stone first trimmed into a disc-shaped core, and then struck by another piece of stone to produce the flakes that were flat on one side and had sharp edges.

Question 38

DNA sequencing

Answer 38

The determination of the precise order of nucleotides in a sample of DNA. Can be used to compare species in order to track evolutionary changes. It can demonstrate the degree of similarity of a genome between species.

Question 39

Missense vs nonsense mutations

Answer 39

Missense: a change in the amino acid produced and thus protein produced. Nonsense: base sequence is changed to "STOP" so protein produced is too short.

Question 40

Neutral vs silent mutations

Answer 40

Neutral: a change in the amino acid produced but change is of the same type and structure isn't changed enough for its function to change. Silent: no change in the amino acid produced and thus the protein produced as most amino acids are coded for by multiple sequences.

Question 41

Random genetic drift examples

Answer 41

RGD: the change in allelic frequencies that occurs in the gene pool of small populations from generation to generation by chance. Founder effect - The Dunkers migrated from Germany to America, with interbreeding producing allelic frequencies different from original and American population. Bottleneck effect - typhoon reduced population of Pingelap to 20, with a survivor having Achromatopsia.