Warfare Flashcards
Impact of the French invasion on ideas about warfare, for example about mercenaries.
o Humanist blamed mercenaries for defeat, saying because they were hired purely for money, did not care + they were not soldier scholar ideal.
o Machiavelli – highly critical of mercenaries – encouraged civilian armies.
Importance of spoils of war and mercenary activity in paying for patronage
o Federico de Montefeltro – Mercenary leader – gained all his money from fighting as a mercenary leader in the ‘Italian Wars’ 1494-1559.
o Money was used to develop Urbino into a Renaissance City - Biggest library in Italy other than the Vatican – 200,000 ducats spent on building palace, 50,000 on furnishing, 30,000 on library – court employed over 100 crafts men – hundreds of books copied for library.
o Patron of Artists Piero della Francesca and Pedro Berrguete – painters – to portray him as pious, dynastic, luxorious scholarly and valorous.
The impact of the foreign invasions of Italy on Renaissance art and thinking
o The beginning of the “wretched years”:
o French Invasion 1494 – however – already half way through period.
o Soldier Scholar as the consummate of man - Italian ideal, not shared by the French.
o Italians did not manage to defend Naples despite the apparent elite “soldier scholar”
o According to Gucciardini, contemporaries saw it as an end to the golden era.
o However, Humanist blamed mercenaries for this, saying because they were hired purely for money, did not care + they were not soldier scholar ideal.
o However, did not particularly affect the topics of art/Italian Renaissance artist continued to paint.
o 1495: Sandro Botticelli paints Calumny of Apelles. (Based off works of greek painter Appelles classical themes, two graceful female figures, who are the personifications of Ignorance and Suspicion.)
o 1495: Cima da Conegliano paints Madonna and Child.(Religious/traditional themes, not affected by war.)
o Leonardo da Vinci probably draws the Portrait of a Young Fiancée for the Sforziada - in Milan despite Milans involvement in French invasion.
The disruption caused to the Italian city states in which the Renaissance had developed and flourished by:
-Sack of Rome in 1527
on the artistic and cultural development of Rome.
o Sack of Rome, Charles V 20,000 troops killed 12,000 people, wounded or exiled people.
o Many artist and intellectuals fled from the city, sought patronage elsewhere, especially France and Spain – contributed to spread of Renaissance ideas – ended the Golden Era of Rome.
o Destruction and theft of artistic pieces – St Peter’s Basilica suffered extensive damage – art works by Michelangelo and Raphael looted and defaced.
o Catalyst of Mannerism – style – characterized by exaggerated forms, elongated proportions, heightened emotional expression – in aftermath of the Sack artists such as Parmigianino, Pontormo, Rosso Fiorentino experiemented with distortion of this kind – to convey psychological upheaval and angst after Sack.
o Italian Wars: Spread of ideas – Michelangelo and da Vinci left Florence during this period, carried artistic innovations elsewhere – e.g. France and Spain.
o Influence of Italian War on Thematic content: Leonardo da Vinci’s ‘The Battle of Anghiari’ (1503) and Michelangelo’s ‘Battle of Cascina’ (1504) - commissioned to celebrate military victories.
The impact of the Ottoman seizure of Constantinople 1453 in terms of creating an influx of texts which influenced humanist scholarship.
o Migration of Greek intellectuals and Manuscripts – Brought Greek texts preserved by the Byzantine Empire, works like Plato, Aristolte – ley to humanist ideas of the Renaissance – E.g. Neoplantonism – Translation of Greek texts into vernacular language – Boccaccio translated Homer’s Odyssey. Ficino translated Plato’s dialogs from Greek to Latin.
o Provided scholars with previously inaccessible works of Greek Scholarship – Rediscovery of Plato inspired Platonic thought and Neoplatonism.
o Encouraged revival of classical learning – humanists sought to emulate intellectual achievements of ancient Greece and Rome – emulating rhetorical and stylistic conventions of ancient authors – E.g. Erasmus drew inspiration from Greek rhetoric in his influential treatise ‘De Copia’.
The ideal of the ‘Renaissance Man’ and the soldier-scholar, and its impact on leading statesmen, nobles and military leaders of the day
o Symetry and balance – very important in Renaissance – Classical influence e.g. Pythagoras. Leonardo’s ‘Vitruvian Man’ embodies this virtue. Symmetry and proportion created objective beauty standards – e.g. buildings and music. Idea of universal man – balance between active and contemplative.
o Federigo de Montefeltro embodied ‘soldier-scholar’ outstanding military leader + patron of arts and scholars. Portrait by Justus of Ghent 1470s – in his library reading manuscripts – dressed in armor.
o However, Federigo de Monterfeltro – one of only people who actual fit this – so didn’t have that much of a real-world impact.
o Could say ideal encouraged patronage and interest in scholarly works + classics by leaders - E.g. Julius, Nicholas, Lorenzo - learned leaders.
The influence of Machiavelli on statecraft.
o ‘The Prince’ – 1513 how to acquire, maintain and expand power – advice to rulers – dedicated to Lorenzo the magnificent.
o Laid groundworks for concept ‘Realpolitik’ – prioritizes practical consideration over moral or ideological concerns. ‘rulers should be willing to use any means necessary’. E.g. Italian city states diplomacy – formed alliances with rival powers to counterbalance influence of dominant states.
o Pope Alexander VI – used Machiavellian techniques – formed alliances with powerful families, Borgia and Medici, to consolidate papal power and expand territory.
o Machiavelli’s writing was very important during the period – it was born of a period of war and thus this great piece of Renaissance literature would not have existed without warfare.
Renaissance attitudes to mercenaries and the decline of the condottieri.
o Machiavelli critiqued mercenaries – questioning their loyalty wen financially motivated.
o Mercenaries didn’t embody soldier scholar – trained to fight, not in the arts etc.
o Legislations against mercenaries enacted by some Renaissance states – to curb mercenary influence. 1506 the republic of Venice prohibited recruitment of Foreign mercenaries within it territories – reflected growing concerns about mercenary warfare destabilizing Italian society.
Impact of the French invasion on Florence and its neighboring city-states, where it precipitated civil unrest and changes in government.
o -Fall of the Medici’s in Florence (Huge artistic patrons of the Renaissance in Florence), end of 60 years of Medici dominance. (Inexperienced Piero lost power).
-Brought about Savonarola’s Florence, harmed the Renaissance.
-Savonarola’s politics were critical of Renaissance hedonistic luxuries.
-Culminated in the “Bonfire of the Vanities” 1497, burnt many art pieces and humanist books ect.
However only lasted till 1498 - limited impact.
Role the French invasion played in shifting the geographical centers of the Renaissance.
o The Renaissance moved away from Florence during this period – many artist went to France, HRE and Rome.
o Art works of Major artists in Rome after this period such as:
o Pope Julius (1503-1505): -Laid groundwork for Vatican Museum.
-Patron to some of the biggest Renaissance names: Raphael, Michelangelo, Bramante. Commissioned: painting of Sistine Chapel, St Peters Bassilica, The Frescoes of the four large Raphael rooms (E.g. School of Athens.)
Wars of Religion – disruption to Northern Renaissance.
Dutch Revolt (1568-1648) against Spanish rule disrupted trade and commerce in the Netherlands, impacting the economic prosperity that had previously supported artistic endeavors.
Disruption of artistic communities: Flemish artists such as Peter Paul Rubens, who left Antwerp during the Dutch Revolt to live and work in Italy.
Period of religious conflict – art and cultural heritage targeted:
iconoclastic outbreaks of the Dutch Revolt, numerous works of art in churches were destroyed by Calvinist iconoclasts who considered them idolatrous.
Disruption of warfare on individual Patrons:
-Medici
-Charles
o Pazzi Conspiracy of 1478 - assassination attempt – Lorenzo and brother Giuliano - rival Florentine families – support from Pope Sixtus IV, violent reprisals, political instability in Florence.
o Lorenzo’s focus shifted from cultural patronage to consolidating power.
o Diplomatic records from other Italian city-states and foreign powers also document interactions with Lorenzo - revealing his focus on securing alliances and managing the fallout from the conspiracy.
o Charles V - Italian Wars and the Protestant Reformation - cost of maintaining armies and fighting against Protestant princes in the Holy Roman Empire strained his resources and limited his ability to support cultural projects – however – still a prolific patron despite limits.
Spread of ideas to France via Warfare?
French Invasion 1494:
1st hand encounters with Renaissance art – soldiers seized arrtworks, manuscripts, and other cultural treasures.
This direct exposure to Italian art, literature, and humanist ideas profoundly influenced French culture during the Renaissance.
King Francis I of France, a patron of the arts, invited Italian artists such as Leonardo da Vinci and Benvenuto Cellini to work at the French court, further disseminating Italian Renaissance ideals in France.
-Milanese Renaissance ornamentation became popular in France.
-Charles VIII - invited Da Cortana - who desgined Chataeu Chambord.
Patronage to assert authority after cities were taken over – E.g. the Sforza’s.
o Sforza’s used patronage to consolidate their power after taking over Milan in 1450.
o Historian Margret L. King goes as far as to claim ‘Sforza munificence had one driving motivation: the quest for status.
o Sforza’s patroned Francesco Filelfo (1398-1481) to construct a family history, glorifying the military valour and skill of the new duke Francesco Sforza.
o Commissioned, from Leonardo, an equestrian statue of Francesco Sforza, emulate an air of longevity and legitimacy of his family and their rule.
Warfare as a catalyst for the development of new weapons, tactics, architecture and artistic styles
o Sack of Rome - Catalyst of Mannerism – style – characterized by exaggerated forms, elongated proportions, heightened emotional expression – in aftermath of the Sack artists such as Parmigianino, Pontormo, Rosso Fiorentino experimented with distortion of this kind – to convey psychological upheaval and angst after Sack.
o Principles of symmetry, geometry and proportion applied to military architecture.
o E.g. Geometrically shaped bastions.
o Leonardo da Vinci contributed to design of military architecture – innovative features such as angled bastions and artillery emplacements.
o Star forts or Trace Italienne – distinctive geometric lay out – angular bastions projecting outwards – provide overlapping fields of fire.
o Fortresses adorned with sculptured reliefs, frescoes and decorative stonework – reflecting design trends of the period – Palladio applied classical architectural principles to military structures.
