Water Flashcards
(29 cards)
1
Q
Holden (2012)
A
- CLIMATE system, 5 components, stern review 2006, CC, Industrial Rev 280 vs 400ppm, milankovitch, greenhouse effect, enhanced greenhouse effect, clouds, volcanoes, aerosols
- Hurricane Katrina
- REGIONAL CLIMATE + WEATHER - ITCZ, anticyclones, polar front, monsoon, cyclones, air masses, climate variation
- HILLSLOPES - transform and transport materials to river channels and sea - weathering, erosion, regolith
- SOIL - biosphere, supports life, habitat, food, water reservoir, pores, weathering, humus, soil profile + horizons, open system, soil-formation (parent material, climate, topography, organisms, time - soil-forming factors), soil texture (particle size) and structure, soil acidity, PH, micro/macro nutrients, decomposition, exploitation
- CATCHMENT HYDROLOGY - catchment water budgets, overland flow, infiltration-excess overland flow, throughflow - stormflow and baseflow - flashy, hydrographs, env change, land-management, rain gauge, EVT, GW + water table, pores, infiltration, Darcy’s law, micropore flow, pipe flow, flooding
- FLUVIAL - processes, landforms, natural / human channel change, river management, river restoration
- BIOSPHERE - Biomes - Tropical (rainforests, savanna, desert), Temperate (Mediterranean, grasslands, deciduous forests, southern hemisphere evergreen temperate forest), Cold (Taiga (boreal forest), Tundra), Mountain, Arctic - Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, resilience
- ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES - ecosystem, habitat, populations, communities, ecosystem services, energy and nutrient flows, bioaccumulation, ecological niche, competition, r and k species, biodiversity, succession, urban ecology, conservation, ecological footprint
- FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS - rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, open waters, human influence (eutrophication)
- VEGETATION + ENV CHANGE - plants response light, water, temp, CO2, eg. changes flowering times, fire, biodiversity loss
- ENV CHANGE MANAGEMENT - rate of change, env tolerance
2
Q
Charney (1975)
vs
Jackson and Idso (1975)
Wendler and Eaton (1983)
Alt explanation - Entekhabi et al. (1992)
A
Charney Hypothesis
Charney suggested that changes in albedo as a function of vegetation growth has a positive feedback on rainfall in the Sahel
Vegetation has lower albedo, thus leading to more surface heating, stronger land-ocean temperature gradients, which in turn enhance monsoonal circulation in the tropics
- Jackson and Idso (1975) suggested that albedo changes in the US with vegetation change were inconsistent with Charney’s
- Wendler and Eaton (1983) found that the difference in albedo for vegetated and unvegetated sites in Tunisia was also insufficient for Charney’s model to explain patterns of precipitation change
- Entekhabi et al. (1992) have suggested that reprecipitation of moisture that is evapotranspired from vegetation is more likely to lead to the feedback at regional level
3
Q
Jones (1997)
Hydrological Cycle
A
- cycle determines supply freshwater - essential life
- creates climate conditions for life - water vapour + greenhouse effect
- 4 stores (ocean, terrestrial waters (GW, rivers), t ice, atmosphere) + flows between - CC changes amounts stores not volume
- different turnover times eg. ice 15000 yrs, atmosphere moisture 10 days
- oceans control system - 71% earth, evaporation, move heat etc. - thermohaline
- 85% freshwater reserves ice sheets (Antarctic / Greenland)
- sea level since last ice age rose 100m, ocean volume increased 10mn km3
- snow + albedo
- evaporation rate depends windspeed and vapour-holding capacity air (saturation deficit) - temp water determines molecules can go, air determines if will
- rainfall - ITCZ, frontal systems, depressions etc.
4
Q
Horton (1933)
vs
Hewlett and Hibbert (1967)
A
Hortonian or Infiltration-Excess Overland Flow
rate of overland flow production = rainfall intensity - infiltration rate
vs
- during prolonged rainfall could still get overland flow even if rainfall intensity was never greater than infiltration rate eg. due to water-table rise
- essentially soil profile filling limited capacity - rate drop out bottom too slow despite having more infiltration capacity = saturated overland flow
5
Q
Kirkby
A
“Characteristic forms” of hill-slope
6
Q
Anderson and Burt (1978)
A
- examined control of topography on throughflow discharge and the stream hydrography - difficult as need better data coverage to work in applying Darcy’s law (1856) - law which enables predictions of outflow discharge at slope base (have to know size and slope of saturated wedge to use) - also need know hydraulic conductivity (not accurate if don’t use - Hewlett and Hibbert (1963) didn’t = input / output saturated wedge not match)
- previous research focus stormflow and not base flow to determine throughflow eg. Dunne and Black - focus on saturated linked to stormflow only - wrong
- significance saturated wedge in controlling slope discharge hydrograph - slope discharge hydrographic prediction by Darcy’s law being done study - delayed peak stream discharge represents hill slope throughflow contribution (hydrograph lag)
- essentially shows dominance of topography in controlling flow direction and thus emphasises need for hill slope hydrology models to be 3D
- Darcy’s law need know cross-sectional area flow and hydraulic conductivity
- dominance saturated flow in hill slope hydrograph generation
- saturated hollow pores full = throughflow
- only slight increased drainage efficiency at larger slope lengths
7
Q
Darcey (1856)
A
Darcy’s Law
- allows us calculate amount of water flowing through a substance
- calculate likely rate of water movement through a porous medium when it is saturated
8
Q
Flood Event
A
Boscastle Floods 2004
- 185-200mm in 24 hours although most in 5 hours
- peak intensity 300mm hour
- peak flow 140m per second
- 3:45pm river flood - flash flood due intense rainfall
9
Q
Saul (2014)
/ Monboit (2014
A
Somerset levels flooding
- Env Secretary Owen Paterson under fire - boats only way transport currently - claim plan within 6 weeks to cope
- env agency criticised for lack dredging river - failure manage river
- homes destroyed jan floods, living like third world country
/
- believe not enough spending flood defences
- env secretory not listening what needs doing - eg. holistic appraoches
- poor upland management causing floods often
10
Q
Pitt report (2008) 2007 floods
A
- globally 200 major floods in 2007 = 180mn people impacted, 8,000 deaths and £40bn damage
- England floods 55,000 properties flooded, 7,000 people rescued, 3 died, largest loss essential services since WW2 - half mn without mains water or electricity
11
Q
Johnson et al (2007)
A
- Increase in damages at all flood depths 1990-2005
- Long duration floods produce greater total damages £32,754 (>12 hrs) and £26,105 (<12 hrs) for a 0.3-m flood.
- Increase damage potential for shallow-depth floods; up most for 0.1-m and 0.5-m depth floods. At 0.05m flood damage increased by 915% and 948% for a short and long duration flood.
- Costs of damage to goods increased faster than damage to buildings
12
Q
SAHRA (2015)
Isotopes
A
- Isotopes and Hydrology eg. helium used to determine GW ages
- isotopes = chemical element with diff atomic mass, diff no neutrons
- hydrologic applications isotopes eg. dating water, what rock/sediment water interacted w, source GW contamination, salinity source in water etc.
- SMOW - standard mean of ocean water - standard used to compare oxygen and hydrogen isotopic compositions of water deviated from mean value
13
Q
Lane (2008)
A
CC and UK 2007 Summer Floods
- UK summer rainfall second highest on record
- floods linked to belief climate is changing
- need understand historical climate variability to understand what is / is not modern CC
- natural jet streams, cyclogensis, mid-latitude weather systems - normally jet stream weakens in time for summer for a stable climate and moves north - but in 2007 jet stream not move north till august + remained intense summer = severe rainfall
- were 2007 floods human CC or natural variation
- human idea = evidence increasing extreme rainfall since 60s but many emissions scenarios show reduction precipitation with drier summer + wetter winter - anticipate jet stream move north longer w CC = drought summer - CC hypothesis unresolved as extreme weather events are changing + current models struggle reflect accurate precipitation changes
- natural - hard to know if based historical data events expected - only have radar data last 10-15yrs - lack records far enough back - longer data do see general more wet phases - our records since 1960 appear in flood-poor time compared past 150 yrs
14
Q
5 - 6mn years ago…
A
Dugen et al (2003)
- slab lithosphere broke off and caused isostatic uplift strait of Gibraltar closing off Mediterranean from Atlantic = large-scale evaporation experiment - Messinian Salinity Crisis
Meijer and Krijgsman (2005)
- estimated take 5-8ka for evaporation to balance with river inflow based current models
- suggesting refilling Gibraltar take 2-3ka
15
Q
Mediterranean storm
A
1992 South France
- pulls in moisture from mediterranean - hit alps = severe rain
- 100ml hour
- 300ml rain single day (same 50% Durham rainfall)
16
Q
Marsh et al (2007)
- meteorological drought
A
UK drought
- the Long Drought in Thames Basin winter rainfall deficiencies - 1902/3 had deficit close to zero
- 2010-12 - rainfall anomalies during this drought
17
Q
Palmer (1965)
A
Palmer Drought-Severity Index
- way compare drought across different climates USA
18
Q
Drought CS
+ wildfire - Wootson (2018)
A
California
- end 2016/17 return moisture, back drought 17/18
- since 2012 state of emergency 2014
- 2017 7,117 fires in california covering 2,048km2
- mudslides off mountains due to fires - Montecito mudslides jan 2018
- Camp Fire California 2018 killed 85 people, destroyed 14,000 residences and charred area size Chicago (153,000 acres)
- 296 people unaccounted for
- Trump claim spread fast result poor forest management state california - threatened removed funding - state officials hottest years record past decade, vegetation parched
- public health emergency in state - disease temp accommodation (120 ill)
- risk post of flash floods
19
Q
Salinisation and water transfers
A
Colorado River
- aqueduct 1928
- Hoover Dam 1936
- california aqueduct 1963-1997
- 1974 water US-Mexico border reached salinity 0.98g - 1973 agreement with Mexico and 74 Colorado River Basin Salinity Control Act - water at Morales not more 0.115-0.03g
- water diverted to LA aqueduct from 1913 = Owens Lake dried up by 1926 = dust emissions - took until 1998 for to be addressed - replant native vegetation, shallow flooding (diverting water back), adding gravel
- 7 us states (97% basin), 2 Mexican (3%)
- seasonal flow management challenge
- development 1915-1970 - waters fully allocated 9 states - little reaches mouth
- fierce disputes
- conservationists = symbol everything mankind has done wrong (Reisner 1986)
- triumphant eg. Las Vegas, LA built vs env view bad
- 1800s diversions by irrigators
- Colorado Compact 1922 = basin agreement divide upper / lower basin - Mexico excluded - Arizona not sign - over-allocated water
- Boulder Canyon Act 1928 federal investment dams and canals - funding flood controls, water storage reservoirs, HEP - included creation Hoover dam
- US Mexico no right water vs Mexico claims eg. 1929 - 1944 agreement but US struggles to meet 1.5mn year to Mexico
- $1.4 tr annual economy + $26 bn recreational opportunities eg Grand Canyon
- demand river exceeds supply + more damns planned - add in CC = reduce flow 10-30% 2050
- most endangered river US 2015
20
Q
SAHRA (2015)
Water Conservation
A
- 3% water freshwater, need conserve
- UN 2003 - current trends continue 2/3 people suffer water shortages in two decades time
- 1/6 no regular access safe drinking water + 2.4bn no adequate sanitation facilities
- conserve water at home - roof water run-off, efficient utilities, washing cars, water meters, lawn, swimming pools etc
- rainwater harvesting, grey water re-use, leak detection, irrigation systems
21
Q
Dietrich and Perron (2006)
Search for a topographic signature of life
A
- how does landscape bear marks of life - life involved shaping processes eg. breakdown bedrock, erosion, transport etc. - influence of life on topography
- has emergence life altered erosion mechanisms so much that features landscape not exist without biotic influences? - may be significant little things like a garden but what about big things like tectonics
- see life eg. in bedrock breakdown - root growth, animal burrowing - influence soil growth - biotic influence production and transport of debris but laws not account this - these laws make up models landscape evolution thus exclude living
- landscapes can occur same without biotic largely - absence biota may change certain places slightly but not out of bounds of natural - eg. things like meandering in rivers less common but still able to exist non-biotic presence - biotic and abiotic causes
- essentially yes biotic influence topography but not unique signature of life
- familiarity landforms mars
- no unique landforms that could only exist in presence of life - hopeful exists but maybe only at v small scale
22
Q
Falkenmark (1997) and Wallace (2000)
A
- estimate total annual per capita water requirement at 1,000m3
23
Q
Water Sustainability CS
A
Great Man-made River Project, Libya
- completed 1991
- water from aquifers
- 4000km pipeline carry 6.5 M m3 day, irrigate aim 155k ha
- taking water from below Sahara (used rivers and lakes)
- artesian basin
- GW up to mn years old
24
Q
Hoekstra and Mekonnen (2012)
Water footprint
A
- Agricultural production 92% global annual average WF, industrial 4.7%, domestic 3.8%
- global average consumer WF 1,385 m3/y vs US 2,842
- problem global freshwater resources - govs need focus not just on meeting national demand, but on global patterns eg. not consider import/export water-intense commodities - important understand WF country
- China, India and US combined = 38% global WF production - china and US largest WFs terms industry
- Virtual water exporters = US, China, India, Brazil, Argentina vs importers = US, Japan, Germany, UK, China
- China highest WF consumption world - per capita more useful as large pop - UK and US higher - US high due to meat consumption - developed higher WF in general
- large external WF if depend freshwater resource import eg. Malta water-scares
- limitations = only traces one step eg. imported from, assume commodity made there; also low estimate grey water as hard track pollution eg. of fertilisers
25
IPCC AR5 (2014)
- global pop experience water scarcity + impacted floods increase C21st w warming
- CC reduce surface and groundwater resources
- increased urban risk extreme weather events
- rural impacts water supply, food security, infrastructure and income
26
WWF (2007)
| Interbasin water transfers and water shortages
- challenge ensuring adequate water humans whilst having healthy freshwater ecosystems. one mode even distribution water move it from areas surplus to deficit -IBTs can solve water issues supply but high cost, econ risk, interrupt connectivity river systems, disrupt fish migrations, alter natural flows, cause salinisation, water table lowering
- eg. Aral Sea!
- Tagus-Segura Transfer Spain - 286km pipeline connecting 3 spanish river basins 1978 aim solve deficit and supply 147,000 hectares irrigation + 76 municipalities - 2 damns upper Tagus - led to unsustainable water use, unmonitored irrigation land expansion, illegal boreholes, pollution, fish species endangered
- Proposed IBT Peru - contract signed 2004 - Olmos transfer project (olmos receive from huancabamba basin) - $185mn to do - for energy supply and irrigation but caused logging for irrigation lands, ecosystem damage, loss communal land w no rights farmers, 200 people relocated donating basin
- need consider alternatives - reduce water demands (Queensland Australia encourage water efficient devices, education campaigns to raise awareness), recycle waste water, rainwater harvesting, desalination
27
Drought and Solution CS
South Africa, Cape Town Drought
- 3 years drought 2013 = 1,100mm to 2016 = 500mm
- 4 mn people fed dams
- heavily invested water infrastructure
- new investments for 2020 - desalination plants, wastewater treatment units, groundwater extraction projects
- shock people into behaviour change "50l a day keeps day zero away"
- reduced consumption (2015 1.2bn l day population vs 2018 500l) - behaviour change and suburban restrictions - 50l day per person (25l in informal settlements already)
- increased supply using grey water, private boreholes, storage tanks, bottled water etc.
- maps monitoring peoples water use - neighbours police + info online to change behaviour
- drought due CC tripled - but not sole cause
28
Houses of Parliament (2011)
| Water in Production of products
- global water demand outstrip supply 40% 2030
- virtual water = 95% human water use (86% food)
- focus water withdrawal vs water consumption - companies may put back
- water scarcity impacts 1 in 3 globally
- Aral Sea - reduced volume 80% since 1960 (cotton)
- govs need calculate virtual water use + understand to reduce - need recognise interdependence in water strategies
- consumer choice as tool to manage water consumption eg. labels on products (but need consumer understanding to work)
- need better cooperation in supply chain reduce water - social responsibility businesses to be sustainable - UN CEO Water Mandate - M&S water sustainability plan 2007 make chain more sustainable - eg. UK products, Kenyan flowers
- need tighter water management in agriculture
29
Falkenmark (1997)
- green water (soil) deficient third world - when deficit blue water (aquifers) can be added - focus Africa/Asia dry climate + fast pop growth areas - could blue water allow food self-sufficiency - 2025 water scarcity make regions populated 55% world's pop dependent food import
- may have import virtual water by importing food grown less drought-prone regions - possibly unavoidable development
- based assumptions eg. 100l water per person per day -is pos meet needs blue water - makes assumption food, household and industry need estimates as 25H (25 x 100l) - accounts for pop pressure incl pollution, current total water withdrawal percentage overall availability, per capita water use level
- some areas already using above 25H - need stop wasteful water use practice eg. Kazakhstan
- shows may possible SE Asia to achieve and in Kazakhstan and Caucasus by better management - but water demands rising too fast many places for blue water to be plausible eg. S Africa
- assumptions of estimates, malthusian tendencies
- study shows vulnerable countries have give up goal food self-sufficiency - need response problems for time to act - need shift trade and policy globally to solve
