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Geography A-level > Water and Carbon > Flashcards

Water and Carbon Flashcards

1
Q

Explain the concept of dynamic equilibrium in the water cycle (4)

A
  • when the inputs and outputs in a system are balanced and the stores stay the same.
  • Rivers are constantly changing over time to reach a balance with the processes that determine their form. As the flows of energy and materials passing through the river change over time, so to does the river towards this equilibrium
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2
Q

Explain the concept of Negative feedback in the water cycle (4)

A
  • when a system acts by lessening the effect of the original change and ultimately reversing it.
  • as the surface temperature of the Earth increases there are increased levels of evaporation from the oceans. This increased evaporation results in more clouds forming in the lower atmosphere
  • These clouds refect some solar radiation back into space, slightly decreasing the surface temperature
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3
Q

Outline the amount of water stored in the Earth’s different spheres (4)

A

96.5% - Hydrosphere
1.7% - Cryosphere
1.7% - Lithosphere
0.001% - Atmosphere

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4
Q

Outline the share water in fresh water stores (4)

A
  • 3% of all water is fresh water
  • 79% of fresh water stored in ice caps and glaciers
  • 20% of fresh water stored as ground water
  • 1% of fresh water is easily accessible surface water
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5
Q

Explain the role of condensation in the water cycle (4)

A
  • It is the process by which water vapour changes to liquid water
  • It is a flow from the atmosphere to the hydrosphere
  • Condensation takes place when the temperature of air is reduced to dew point but is volume remains constant.
  • It also occurs when the volume of air increases but there is no addition of heat (adiabatic cooling). This happens when air rises and expands in the lower pressure of the upper atmospehre.
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6
Q

Explain factors driving Cryospheric change (4)

A
  • They are the processes that affect the total mass of ice at any scale.
  • Glacial periods mean there is far more water stored glaciers, and sea levels were 120m lower than present
  • Permafrost is formed when air temperatures are so low that they freeze any soil and groundwater present
  • Global warming is seeing the melting of polar ice caps
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7
Q

Outline the concept of a drainage basin (4)

A
  • An area of land drained by a river and its tributaries. It includes water found on the surface, in the soil and in near-surface geology
  • It is an open system as water is inputted as precipitation and outputted through channel flow and evapotranspiration
  • Some water is stored in interception, surface and channel storage, soil and groundwater stores
  • Drainage basins are separated from each other by highland called a water shed
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8
Q

Outline the process of Evaporation in the water cycle (4)

A
  • The processes by which liquid water changes to a gas. This requires energy, which is provided by the sun and is aided by wind.
  • Results in the increase in storage in the atmosphere and a loss of water from the hydrosphere and biosphere
  • Increasing due to climate change and global warming
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9
Q

Outline the role of evapotranspiration in the water cycle (4)

A
  • The total output of water from the drainage basin directly back into the atmosphere
  • Transpiration is the loss of water from vegetation through pores on their surfaces
  • Evaporation will be from surface storage like puddles
  • This counts as an ouput from the open system
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10
Q

Outline the role of Groundwater flow in the water cycle (4)

A
  • the slow movement of water through underlying rocks
  • is the slowest flow in the drainage basin
  • movement of water from groundwater storage to channel flow
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11
Q

Outline the role of infiltration in the water cycle (4)

A
  • The downward movement of water from the surface into soil
  • The rate of this movement is known as the infiltration rate
  • Soil porosity if the most important determing infiltration rate
  • Infiltration rate declines rapidly during the early part of a rainstorm event
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12
Q

Explain the role of Interception in the water cycle (4)

A
  • the precipitation that falls on the vegetation surfaces or human-made cover and is temporarily stored on these surfaces.
  • Acts a store between flows
  • The size of the store can be decreased due to evaporation
  • The density of vegetation cover determines the amount of interception storage
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13
Q

Explain the role of overland flow in the water cycle (4)

A
  • The tendency of water to flow horizontally across land when rainfall has exceeded the infiltration capacity of the soil and all surface stores are full to overflowing.
  • It can flow as sheetflow (large difuse flow of water) or rills (small channels)
  • The rate of overland flow is determined by the impermeability of the soil
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14
Q

Outline the role of percolation in the water cycle (4)

A
  • The downward movement of water within the rock under the soil surface.
  • Rates vary depending on the nature of the rock
  • It is the flow between the stores of soil and groundwater storage
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15
Q

Outline the role of stemflow (4)

A
  • The portion of precipitation intercepted by canopy that reaches the ground by flowing down stems, stalks or tree boles
  • It is the flow connecting the stores of interception and soil storage
  • In very heavy storms it can flow straight down the trunks of trees.
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16
Q

Outline the role of throughfall in the water cycle (4)

A
  • precipitation that reaches the ground directly through gaps in the vegetation canopy and drips through gaps in the vegetation canopy
  • it connects the stores of interception to another until it eventually hits the ground
  • it is dependent on the amount of vegetation, where there is no vegetation it is simply precipitation
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17
Q

Explain the role of throughflow in the water cycle (4)

A
  • the movement of water down slope through the subsoil under the influence of gravity
  • it eventually reaches the nearest channel
  • The more vegetated an area, the faster the rate of throughflow becuase it is aided by root channels in the soil
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18
Q

Explain the role of transpiration (4)

A
  • the loss of water from vegetation
  • it is difficult to separate evaporation from transpiration so the total amount outputted from the drinage basin is refferred to as evapotranspiration.
  • transpiration depends on the amount of vegetation, humidity, temperature, wind and light.
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19
Q

Assess factors leading to a soil moisture deficit (6)

A
  • Temperature. If temperature is warmer, evapotranspiration will increase, meaning more water leaves the soil, leading to the deficit. VS temperature is not as important in some parts of the world where temperatures vary little
  • Precipitation. Precipitation is the input into the system. With low precipitation then the deficit will occur.
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20
Q

Outline features of the flood hydrograph (4)

A
  • Peak rainfall - the maximum amount of rainfall
  • Peak discharge - the maximum amount of water held in the channel
  • Lag time the time taken between peak rainfall and peak discharge
  • Rising limb the increase in discharge to peak discharge
  • Falling limb shows the return of discharge to normal/base flow on a hydrograph
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21
Q

Explain the characteristics of a flashy flood hydrograph (4)

A
  • Short lag time as there has been a short amount of time between peak rainfall and peak discharge
  • High peak discharge the river has liekly gone over its its bankfull due to a significant amount of throughflow
  • Steep rising limb as there has been a significant amount of throughflow quickly
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22
Q

Explain how drainage basin shape impacts the flood hydrograph (4)

A
  • Drainage basins that are more circular in shape lead to more flashy hydrographs than those with are long and thin
  • This means that there is a steeper rising limb
  • This is because each point in the drainage basin is roughly equidistant from the measuring point on a river
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23
Q

Explain how steep sided basins affect the flood hydrograph (4)

A
  • Steep sided basins tend to have flashier hydrographs than gently sloped river basins
  • This is becuase water flows more quickly on the steep slopes, whether as throughflow or overland flow, so gets to the river more quickly
  • This will lead to a steeper rising limb
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24
Q

Explain how drainage density affects the flood hydrograph (4)

A
  • High drainage density means the basin has a lot of surfacr streams acting as tributaries to the main river
  • If there is high drainage density thenthere will be a flashy hydrograph
  • All water will arrive at the measuring station at the same time
  • This will increase the rising limb and the peak discharge
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25
Q

Explain how saturated soil impacts the flood hydrograph (4)

A
  • If the drainage basin is already saturated by antecedent rainfall then overland flow increases because infiltration capacity has been reaches
  • Since overland flow is the fastest of the transfers the lag time is reduced.
  • Peak discharge will be higher meaning the hydrograph will be flashy
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26
Q

Explain how the soil or rock type within the river basin affects the flood hydrograph (4)

A
  • If the soil or rock type is impermeable overland flow will be higher
  • Throughflow and infiltration will also be reduced, meaning a flashy hydrograph
  • The same is true for surfaced baked hard by the sun or frozen surfaces
27
Q

Explain how vegetation cover effects the flood hydrograph (4)

A
  • Thick vegetation cover in drainage basins will have significant effect on the flood hydrograph
  • Vegetation intercepts the precipitation, holding the water on its leaves, this slows down the movement of rainwater to the ground and so to river channels
  • Water is also lost due to evapotranspiraiton from the vegetation surfaces, reducing how much gets to the river
  • This subdues the storm hydrograph increasing lag time and reducing peak discharge
28
Q

Explain how precipitation impacts the flood hydrograph (4)

A
  • Heavy storms with a lot of water entering the drainage basin over a short time result in higher discharge
  • The lag time will be greater if it is snow rather than rain as it takes time for snow to melt
  • Antecednet rainfall will saturate the soils, increasing run off rates
29
Q

Explain how deforestion impacts the flood hydrograph (4)

A
  • Deforestation reduces interception rates allowing rainwater to hit the surface directly
  • The lack of vegetation roots reduces the infiltration rate into the soil
  • This increased surface run off and therefore flashier hydrographs
  • Deforestation leads to greater soil erosion, which leads to sedimentation of the channel. This reduces the bankfull capacity of the river, leading to a greater chance of flooding
30
Q

Assess the impact of agriculture on the flood hydrograph (6)

A
  • Ploughing breaks up the top soil, leading to greater infiltration, subduing the hydrograph. VS Ploughing wet soils can cause impermeable smears in the subsoil called plough pans, inhibiting percolation producing greater surface flows
  • Grass crops increase infiltration and lead to subdued hydrographs VS Pastoral famring compacts soil leading to overland flow
31
Q

Assess impacts of deforestation on the flood hydrograph (6)

A
  • When forests are removed, new vegetation generally has fewer leaves and shallower roots. This means it uses less water than the forest it replaces. This means there is less evaporation, and more stream flow, increasing the discharge and rising limb
  • However, extensive deforestation will cause a decrease in the discharge, becuase evapotranspiration is low, then water leaves the area via the river channel. This then means there is less water vapour available in the atmosphere for precipitation so precipitation falls. In the long run channel discharge will fall.
  • Overall this depends on the short/long term, and the extent of deforestation
32
Q

Explain how soil drainage works (4)

A
  • A network of perforated tubed called tiles are laid across the field facing towards an open ditch
  • When the water table in the soil is higher than the tile, water flows into the tubing.
  • Drain tiles allow excess water to leave the field, but once the water table has been lowered to the elevation of the tiles, no more water can flow through them.
33
Q

Assess the use of soil drainage (6)

A
  • Heavy machinery and pastoral farming can be used without compacting the soil. This reduces run off, which would reduce the liklihood of flooding VS The insertion of drains artificially increases the speed of throughflow in the soil. This would increase the amount of possible river flooding
  • Improves germination, as increases ease for soil to be warmed, meaning seeds can be sowed earlier VS nitrate loss leads to eurtophication, meaning water moves into ponds with nitrogen or phosphorous. This disturbs the balance of organism present in the water, meaning alfae and higher forms of plant life grow too fast
34
Q

Assess the relative importance of factors affecting water abstraction (6)

A
  • Most important - irrigation - leads to groundwater overexploitation. Groundwater levels are sinking due to over abstraction
  • 2nd Importance - Sinking water tables make reliable, since many river flows are maintained in the dry season by springs that dry up when water tables fall.
  • 3rd Saline intrusion - when saltwater from the sea degrades the groundwater, making groundwater not useable for domestic consumption
35
Q

Assess problems affecting water abstraction in a local river catchment you have studied. (6)

A
  • Groundwater sources could be a future risk in times of drought when abstracting at Shalford VS, Thames Water report explains unless there is a much more severe drought ground water sources would be deployable
  • Evapotranspiration - around half of all rainfall to the River Wey is lost through evaporation and vegetation growth VS Remains at 38Ml/D above the abstraction license, shows there is ample supply of water in the Wey at Shalford
36
Q

Flooding is becoming a major risk in drainage basins.

With reference to a local drainage basin, to what extent do you agree with this view? (20)

A
  • Risk of flooding is increasing due to greater rainfall. The most recent climate period is 12mm on average more monthly than the 1961-1990 period. 2013-14 saw rainfall over 250% the average leading to floods. This clearly shows how increased rainfall is increasing the liklehood of floods
  • Land use change. Guildford experienced the most flooding due to lots of concrete and impermeable surfaces leading to faster runoff rates. VS better flood defences and raising the bankfull is making flooding less likely (this is a short term and relies on us building flood defences)
  • Losing forest cover (50% of precipitation from the Wey is lost through evapotranspiration) a loss of forest will increase runoff VS most of Surrey in the Greenbelt so deforestation is unlikely (again shorter term)
37
Q

Assess the view that stores are the most significant in affecting river discharge in a drainage basin you have studied (20)

A
  • The most significant store is soil storage. The Wey is mainly made of alluvial soils, which are very permeable. There us a significant amount of water stored in soil in the Wey Basin. VS we are seeing more impermeable surfaces being made with population growth. In the future this store is not going to be as significant
  • Input is by far the biggest influence though. Precipitation is the input into the drainage basin.Ave rainfall is 681mm a year. Without precipitation then there would be no discharge VS we could argue the ouputs are the biggest influence. 50% of rainfall is evapotranspirated from the Wey basin.
38
Q

Assess the view that stores are the most significant in affecting river discharge in a drainage basin you have studied (20)

A
  • The most significant store is soil storage. The Wey is mainly made of alluvial soils, which are very permeable. There us a significant amount of water stored in soil in the Wey Basin. VS we are seeing more impermeable surfaces being made with population growth. In the future this store is not going to be as significant
  • Input is by far the biggest influence though. Precipitation is the input into the drainage basin.Ave rainfall is 783mm a year. Without precipitation then there would be no discharge VS we could argue the ouputs are the biggest influence. 50% of rainfall is evapotranspirated from the Wey basin.
39
Q

Outline precipitation figures of a local drainage basin you studied (4)

A
  • Average annual rainfall in the Wey basin was 783mm
  • Month with the highest rainfall is Nov with 91mm
  • May is the lowest month with 49mm
  • In 2013-14 the Wey has rainfall over 250% the national average
40
Q

Outline the geology of a local drainage basin you have studied (4)

A
  • 75% high permeable bedrock
  • Alluvium covered with clayey gley soils
  • Chalk hills of the north downs
  • They Wey has more permeable rock than other basins
41
Q

Outline the events of a recent flood in your local drainage basin (4)

A
  • very high rainfall, of over 250% of the nation average that year.
  • eight times the usual discharge for that period in the year (50m3/s compared to usual of 6.2m3/s)
  • Led to flooding in Guildford, where the river is narrower.
  • Steep hills and impermeable surfaces in Guildford town increased the severity of the flood
42
Q

Outline the discharge of a local river you have studied (4)

A
  • Mean flow 6.24m3/s
  • Highest flow during 2014 floods reached 90m3/s
  • Flow consistently above 20m3/s during Winter 2014
  • Discharge has constantly been at a level where water extraciton has been viable at Shalford
43
Q

Outline the flood defenses in a local drainage basin you studied (4)

A
  • Temporary barriers in Guildford in 2014
  • £1mn claeance scheme to clear the river from sand and trees after the flood
  • half a million is spent annually on maintaining the river
  • Plans for permanent flood defences in the town centre in 2014
44
Q

Water abstraction from rivers has become unsustainable.
Using a local river catchment you studied, evaluate this view. (20)

A
  • Abstraction at shalford has always been robust during drought periods. Even during the historic low flow where it rached 50ml/day was still 20ml/day greater than the threshold value for risk. VS we willl have more droughts in the future, meaning we could hit the threshold Counter point precipitation trends show they are increasing. Monthly rainfall has risen by 10mm on average from 1960 to the modern climate period
  • Ground water stores are robust and havent been needed so far according to the Wey Water Resources Zone VSthe river extraction accounts for most extraction so if we are using ground water this is not sustainable
  • Standard Evaporation and Precipitation index explains that the Wey has less than a 0.002 chance of a drought
45
Q

Water abstraction from rivers has become unsustainable.
Using a local river catchment you studied, evaluate this view. (20)

A
  • Abstraction at shalford has always been robust during drought periods. Even during the historic low flow where it rached 50ml/day was still 20ml/day greater than the threshold value for risk. VS we willl have more droughts in the future, meaning we could hit the threshold Counter point precipitation trends show they are increasing. Monthly rainfall has risen by 10mm on average from 1960 to the modern climate period
  • Ground water stores are robust and havent been needed so far according to the Wey Water Resources Zone VSthe river extraction accounts for most extraction so if we are using ground water this is not sustainable
  • Standard Evaporation and Precipitation index explains that the Wey has less than a 0.002 chance of a drought
46
Q

Explain the origins of carbon on Earth (4)

A
  • The primary source of carbon is the Earth’s interior
  • Carbon escapes from the mantle at constructive and destructive plate boundaries as well as hot spot volcanoes
  • Much of the CO2 released at destructive boundaries is derived from the metamorphism of carbonate rock subducting with the ocean crust
  • Carbon is removed into long term storage by burial of sedimentary rock layers
47
Q

Outline the stores of carbon in the lithosphere (4)

A
  • Marine sediments and sedimentary rocks contain up to 100 million GtC
  • Soil organic matter contains between 1500 and 1600 GtC
  • Fossil fuel deposits of coal, oil and gas contain approx 4100 GtC
  • Peat (dead undecayed organic matter in boggy areas) contains approx 250 GtC
48
Q

Outline the stores of carbon in the hydrosphere. (4)

A
  • The euphotic zone (surface layer), where sunlight penetrates so that photosynthesis can take place, contains approx 900 GtC
  • The twilight zone (intermediate) and the deep layer of water contain approx 37100 GtC
  • Living organic matter (fish, plankton, bacteria) amounts to approx 30 GtC and dissolved organic matter 700 GtC
  • This gives a total for oceanic carbon of around 37-40,000 GtC
49
Q

Outline the stores of carbon in living vegetation (4)

A
  • It stores 19% of the biospheres carbon. Much of this is stored in plant tissue
  • Amount of carbon in the biomass varies from 35-65% of the dry weight.
  • High latitude forests store much more than low latitude forests.
  • Boreal forest and Amazon store 25% and 20% of forest carbon
50
Q

Outline the role of plant litter in storing carbon (4)

A
  • This is fresh undecomposed and easily recognisable plant debris
  • Includes leaves, cones, needles, twigs, bark etc
  • Leaf tissues account for around 70% of litter in forests
  • Part of the biosphere
51
Q

Outline the role of soil humus as a carbon store (4)

A
  • Humus is a thick brown or black substance that remains after most of the organic litter has decomposed
  • More carbon is stored in the biomass in tropical climates
  • The world’s soils hold 2500GtC
  • Second largest carbon store after the ocean store
52
Q

Outline the stores of carbon in the terrestrial biosphere (4)

A
  • Living vegetation accounts for 19% of biosphere carbon
  • Plant litter such as leaves, cones and twigs.
  • Soil humus originates from litter decomposition.
  • Peat is formed from the accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter in peatlands or mires.
  • Animals play a smal role
53
Q

Outline the role of the atmosphere in the carbon cycle (4)

A
  • 720-800GtC of atmospheric carbon
  • Current concentration of atmospheric carbon is likely highest in the last 20 million years
  • Increased carbon emissions due to human activity leading to anthropogenic climate change
  • Mainly due to the combustion of fossil fuels
54
Q

Explain the concept of the water balance (4)

A
  • The balance between inputs (precipitation) and outputs (run off, evaporation and stores)
  • Rivers only occur if the stores are able to release water, there is direct precipitation or there is overland flow into the river
  • Precipitation = discharge + evapotranspiration +/- change in storage
  • The relationship between precipitation and Potential evapotranspiration is the most important anf influences the soil moisture graph.
55
Q

Outline the role of decomposition in the carbon cycle (4)

A
  • Decomposition includes physical, chemical and biological mechanisms that transform organic matter into increasingly stable forms
  • Phsyical mechanisms - Animals, wind and even other plants can cause this fragmentation. Leaching and transport in water.
  • Chemical mechanisms - These include oxidation and condensation. Biological mechanisms involve feeding and digestion aided by the catalytic effect of enzymes
  • The decomposition process is carried out by decomposers whose special role is to break down dead organisms into smaller molecules
  • Decomposition ensures that carbon can be continually recycled into the soil to allow plant life to grow
56
Q

Outline the role of oceanic carbon pumps (4)

A
  • Water dissolves CO2.
  • Vertical deep mixing is where warm water in oceanic surface currents is carried from the warm tropics to the cold polar regions
  • water is then cooled making it dense enough to sink
  • when cold water returns to the surface and warms, it loses CO2 to the atmosphere
57
Q

Explain the concept of the biological pump (4)

A
  • carbon gets incorporated into marine organisms as organic matter
  • when they die, their dead cells shells and other aprts sink into deep water
  • some material sinks right to the bottom, where it forms into carbon rich sediments
  • This can lock up carbon for millions of years
58
Q

Outline the impact of carbon emissions on the oceans (4)

A
  • Dissolved CO2 in the oceans makes carbon acid, causing the ocean to become less alkaline
  • Carbonic acid means there is less carbonate, so coral shells are thinner and more fragile
  • Ocean warming decreases the abundance of pytoplankton, which limtis the oceans ability to take in carbon
  • Sea level rise
59
Q

Outline the relationship between the water cycle and the carbon cycle in the atmosphere. (4)

A
  • Greater carbon emissions enhance the GH effect. Means warmer temperature means more evaporation of water into the atmosphere
  • This can increase precipitation
  • Photosynthesis requires both precipitation and CO2.
  • Ocean acidification caused by greater atmospheric carbon
  • Volcanic eruptions can release both CO2 and water vapour into the atmosphere
60
Q

Outline the relationship between the water cycle and the carbon cycle in the biosphere (4)

A
  • Photosynthesis requires both precipitation and CO2.
  • CO2 emissions are causing warmer oceans, making carbon sequestration harder
  • CO2 emissions cause GHE thus a loss of soil moisture, necessary for plants to take up CO2
61
Q

With reference to a river catchment that you have studied, assess the potential factors which can impact upon the flood hydrograph. (20)

A
  • Rainfall - 2013-14 had 250% over average rainfall. This will lead to a steep rising limb, a higher baseflow. VS can be mitigated by the fact 50% of rainfall is evapotranspirated in the Wey
  • Land use change Guildford had the worst flooding due to impermeable surfaces. These would lead to faster run off, thus a steeper rising limb VS land use change could subdue the hydrograph due to better drainage planned for the future
  • Geology Chalk on the N downs. Very permeable subduing the hydrograph VS soils still have regularly reached field capacity
62
Q

Assess the impact of farming practices on the carbon budget (20)

A
  • Slash and burn. Leads to the emissions of CO2, plus the risk of further combusion from forest fires. VS new trees are replanted BUT they can only sequester 50% of the original oil palms
  • soil erosion. We see the top soils worn by greater rainfall, meaning they can store less carbon
  • convectional rainfall disruptions, causing more forest fires
63
Q

‘Human activity has led to irreversible changes to the carbon cycle, causing negative impacts for life on Earth.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement? (20)

A
  • deforestation. significant amounts of CO2 emitted, plus less sequestered VS we can mitigate with geological and biological sequestration
  • Fossil fuel combustion. leads to warmer oceans leading to eustatic sea level rise VS we can mitigate through sea defences
64
Q

Outline flows within the water cycle operating on a hill slope. (4)

A
  • Infiltration - Water moves into the soil from the surface
  • Surface run off - water flows down the hillslope in rills or sheetflow
  • throughflow - water flows through the soil down slope
  • percolation - water moves from the soil into the bedrock.
  • groundwater flow - water flows through the bedrock downslope. slowest flow

Geography A-level (4 decks)

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